The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia management policies for conservation, public use, rural settlements, and indigenous communities

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1 Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia management policies for conservation, public use, rural settlements, and indigenous communities Carlos E. Martin & Claudio Chehébar To cite this article: Carlos E. Martin & Claudio Chehébar (2001) The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia management policies for conservation, public use, rural settlements, and indigenous communities, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 31:4, , DOI: / To link to this article: Published online: 30 Mar Submit your article to this journal Article views: 950 View related articles Citing articles: 8 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at Download by: [ ] Date: 12 January 2018, At: 07:51

2 Journal of The Royal Society of New- Zealand Volume V Number 4 December 2001 pp The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia management policies for conservation, public use, rural settlements, and indigenous communities Carlos E. Martin*, Claudio Chehébar This paper presents an overview of some aspects of the federal protected areas system of Argentinian Patagonia We discuss its features and coverage relating to conservation, management issues, and challenges for the future, particularly relating to rural settlers, indigenous communities, and public use Keywords national parks management policies conservation public use rural settlements indigenous communities INTRODUCTION There are 10 federal protected areas in Patagonia, covenng ha, managed by the National Parks Administration, under three legal categories National Parks (70% of the total area), Strict Nature Reserves (15%) and National Reserves The first two categones are the strictest This system, with 97% of its area concentrated in the Andean fringe, provides a good range of the distinctive and variable Nothofagus forests which symbolise the "southern connection" These also include significant proportions of the forests of four tree species of limited distribution, cipres Austrocedrus chilensis, rauli Nothofagus nervosa, araucana Araucana araucana, and alerce Fitzroya cupressoides Most of the Andean-Patagoman parks are of significant size and, furthermore, many are in contact with other non-federal protected areas, or with protected areas in Chile For example, Lanin and Nahuel Huapi parks together with Chilean parks give rise to a complex of more than ha, Los Glaciares park together with Chilean parks reaches ha The policy regarding human settlements, especially rural settlers,which mostly preceded reserve establishment, is reviewed and the main aspects are to officially recognise preexisting permits provided the fulfillment of certain requisites, not allow establishment of new settlements, promote alternative economic activities to livestock raising, and give legal stability to settlers committed to tourism services (conversion programmes) Also, the situation of indigenous communities in Lanin National Park is reviewed A process of transferring communal property of lands to the communities is in progress With respect to tourism and recreational use, the policy and general criteria for planning and managing such usage are discussed in a regional tourism context to exercise caution in development of new areas for use, maintain diversity of activities within the parks, restrict noncompatible activities, preserve the public use of shorelines, give priority of public use over restricted uses, ensui e policies for infrastructure development, offer services tailored to different *Director, Delegacion Regional Patagonia, Admimstracion de Parques Nacionales, Banloche, Argentina drp.martin@banloehe.com.ar Delegacion Regional Patagonia Admimstracion de Parques Nacionales, Banloche Argentina drp.chehebar@banloche.com.ar

3 846 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 income levels; avoid exclusive concessions; involve service providers in conservation of the park; link settlers to tourism services; and encourage public investment in services of low return rate. Other management challenges are briefly discussed, e.g., neighbouring cities, large infrastructure works, introduced plant and animal species, fire management, and others. Mention is made of an ongoing joint project by National Parks Administration (Administration de Parques Nacionales, or APN) and the National Institute of Agrarian Technology (INTA), about preliminary detection and identification of priority areas for conservation in Arid Patagonia. OVERVIEW OF PATAGONIAN PARKS WHAT THEY PROTECT There are 10 federal protected areas in Patagonia, covering ha. Some 97% of this area, or 32.6% of the Andean Patagonia Forest ecoregion, the highest proportion in Argentina, is in the Andean fringe, bordering with Chile (Fig. 1). Most of this area was protected relatively early in the twentieth century; 93% was declared between 1934 and These federal protected areas are managed by the APN and include three legal categories: National Parks, in which no extractive uses nor installation of tourism infrastructure is allowed, but recreational use, mostly extensive, can be authorised. Some 70% of the total area protected is under this regime and a somewhat similar category, Natural Monument. National Reserves, where regulated extractive uses may be permitted (forestry, livestock), and necessary tourist infrastructure located. These were conceived as buffer zones, and for experimentation of approaches for sustainable use of natural areas. Some 30% is under this regime. In this paper the expression "National Parks" may refer both to parks and reserves. Strict Nature Reserves and Strict Conservation Areas are zones within national parks where any human activity, apart from scientific research, is forbidden. Some 15.4% of the protected area is under this regime but the proportion is higher in some parks (e.g., Los Alerces 49%, Perito Moreno 24%; Table 1). Table 1 List of Patagonian national parks and national reserves, including areas and dates of establishment. MN, Monumento Natural, Natural Monument; from this total, ha are legally MN; the remaining area of MN includes two ranches bought by APN, for which provincial and national laws declaring them as parks are still to be voted. Surface area (ha) Park and year of declaration Total National Park Strict Nature Reserve/ Strict Conservation Area National Reserve Lanfn 1937 Nahuel Huapi 1934 Los Arrayanes (included within Nahuel Huapi) Puelo 1971 Los Alerces 1937 Perito Moreno 1937 Los Glaciares 1937 Tierra del Fuego 1960 Laguna Blanca 1940 MN Bosques Petrificados 1954 Totals (69.5%) (13.8%) (10.7%) (12.7%) (49.2%) (23.7%) (8.8%) (17.9%) (10%) (15.4%) (30.5%)

4 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia PARQUES NACIONALES DE PATAGONIA REPUBLICA ARGENTINA 847 RN. LOS Arrayanes P.N.Nahuel Huapi Prohibida su reproduction total o parcia] sin autonzacion de is Admimstracton de Parques Nat Registro de la Propiedad tntelectual y auiorizacion del I G M en tramile Fig. 1 Distribution of the 10 federal protected areas in Argentinian Patagonia, plus Tierra del Fuego with its single park of the same name. Reproduction authorised by Administracion de Parques Nacionales.

5 848 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 The earlier emphasis of creating national parks in the Andean fringe reflects the concepts and trends prevailing at that time; criteria were based on tourism/landscape values, geopolitical importance (international border), and a preference for conserving forests over arid or other non-forest environments. The criteria and trends for selection have changed over time, reflecting the need for a more representative system, but that foundation gave the country an extremely valuable set of protected natural forest areas along the north-south latitudinal gradient of the Patagonian Andes. This system protects significant samples of: northern Andean-Patagonic forests of araucaria Araucaria araucana, the deciduous rauli Nothofagus nervosa, and roble pellm N. obliqua; forests of evergreen coihue N. dombeyi with an understorey of the bamboo Chusquea culeou, and forests of cipres de la cordillera Austrocedrus chilensis, in the north and centre of the region; forests of guindo or coihue de Magallanes Nothofagus betuloides from the southern region; forests of deciduous lenga TV. pumilio and nire N. antarctica distributed all along the Andean axis; the valdivian temperate rain forest in most of the few areas where it extends eastward into Argentina. This system provides a good range of the distinctive and variable Nothofagus forests which symbolise the "southern connection". Four tree species of limited distribution within this system include: the Argentinian area of cipres-dominated forests ( ha, with ha [60%] in national parks and reserves) mostly in the transitional zone between the humid forest and the steppe; the rauli forests (only ha) in Argentina, entirely reserved but with parts under strictly regulated sustainable use programmes; the araucaria or monkey-puzzle forests (Araucaria araucana) ( ha of araucaria forest in Argentina; ha (36%) of the total are in Lanin National Park and Reserve, and ha are in Strict Nature Reserve); the alerce Fitzroya cupressoides coniferous forests and riparian stands ( ha of dense alcerce in Argentina; 69% of it in national parks and reserves). Noteworthy wildlife is associated with these habitats. The temperate forests of southern Argentina and Chile have a particularly high level of vertebrate endemism (Armesto et al. 1995a, 1995b). Some species with important areal requirements and endemic to these forests are receiving significant protection in the parks, e.g., huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus, the southern river otter or huillfn Lontra provocax (in Nahuel Huapi and Tierra del Fuego National Parks), and the pudii deer Pudu puda. One weakness of the system, with the exception of Nahuel Huapi and Perito Moreno National Parks, is the exclusion or poor representation of the transition to the eastern steppes, which is important for species or communities requiring both environments, or making seasonal movements between them. A significant function of several of the protected natural areas in the Patagonian Andes is protection of important headwaters. Lanin, Nahuel Huapi, and Los Glaciares National Parks are important in this respect. Conversely, other parks, which are located downstream in their catchments, have a certain vulnerability. While most Patagonian catchments contain introduced salmonids, the national parks probably protect most of the few Andean water bodies still free of salmonids, e.g., some sub-basins in Perito Moreno National Park. Most of the Andean-Patagonian parks are of significant size; three exceed ha, and two are between and ha. Furthermore, many are in contact with other nonfederal protected areas, or with protected areas in Chile, e.g., the complex of Lanfn-Nahuel Huapi National Parks contacts Villarrica, Perez Rosales, and Puyehue National Parks in Chile, giving rise to a complex of more than ha; Los Glaciares National Park due to its contact with the Torres del Paine and Bernardo O'Higgins National Parks in Chile is

6 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 849 part of a ha complex What is yet to be achieved is effective co-ordination and cooperative management between federal and non-federal areas, and between those of Chile and Argentina MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES: RURAL SETTLERS AND INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES The following is based on Martin (1999a) Settlement categories Within some protected natural areas, mostly national reserves, there are human settlements that mostly preceded reserve establishment There are several types of settlements Rural settlers may be descendants of the first colonisers that settled the areas before the creation of protected natural areas Others are descendants of the Mapuche indigenous people, who are organised as indigenous communities In general, these settlements were officially recognised by national parks, and their occupants received lifetime permits for residence and livestock raising, the principal economic activity within the settlements Nonhereditary permits were supposed to terminate at the holder's death, but the majority of the settlements have persisted, and the descendants are recognised by APN up to the present There are some private land owners, including some tourist villages created within a national park during its early history Lanin and Nahuel Huapi National Reserves have ha of privately owned land Tourism-services providers, Gendarmerfa Nacional (Border Police) units, and APN park rangers may be catered for within protected natural areas Almost every Andean-Patagonic park and reserve now has a number of rural settlements of varying economic level (not including settlers integrated to indigenous communities) Lanin has 15, Nahuel Huapi 61, Los Alerces 30, Lago Puelo 4, Pento Moreno 2, and Los Glaciares 5 Settlers of the first four generally belong to a low-income level, while those in Pento Moreno and Los Glaciares have higher income and quality of life There are no rural settlers in Tierra del Fuego park Settlement impacts The main conservation problem associated with the settlements is the effect of livestock grazing, the central economic activity of the people. In subantarctic forests, large areas are affected and tree regeneration hindered, particularly in burned forests The recent policy on this issue has been to officially recognise pre-existing permits, even after the permit holder's death, provided certain requisites are fulfilled by the successors (continuous residence during at least the past 20 years, and dependence on the activity as their main source of subsistence, not allow establishment of new settlements or intruders, permit livestock raising while also promoting the development of alternative economic activities (especially related to tourism) (This is aimed at gradually displacing livestock raising as the main economic activity In this connection, permits are given to settlers for camping areas, firewood sale, renting horses, lodging, etc, give legal stability to settlers within national parks who are already fully committed to tourism services, including access to the land for residence or tourism infrastructure, and accompany the conversion programmes with training, through partnerships with universities, government departments, non-government organisations (NGOs), etc ) In buffer zones where continuity of some productive activities is feasible, the possibility of giving settlers full property title to the land is being considered to facilitate improvement of their livelihood Here it is also important to provide technical assistance for improvement of traditional livestock and forest management, to reduce negative effects and to improve yields

7 850 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 There is a general trend in the conversion towards tourism services. In Los Glaciares and Perito Moreno National Parks, almost every settler provides services for tourism while gradually reducing livestock numbers. In Los Alerces National Park, a significant number of settlers are in different stages of this conversion process. In Lanin and Nahuel Huapi National Parks the same process is slower due to the low-income level of most settlements. Indigenous communities Indigenous communities in the Andean-Patagonian region are confined to Lanin National Park and belong to the Mapuche people. Aigo community. Part of this community (320 people in 68 settlements or familial groups) occupies an area in the national reserve at Lake Rucachoroi. Raquithue community. Located on the north shore of Huechulafquen Lake (16 people in 3 settlements, plus 35 others residing temporarily in summer). Canicul community. Also located in Huechulafquen Lake area (108 permanent and 54 temporary residents, in 20 settlements). Cayun community. Several members of this community (29 people in 7 settlements) live in the national reserve at Lacar Lake. Curruhuinca community. About 600 people in 108 settlements occupy a significant part of the national reserve in the Lacar Lake area. Most of these indigenous communities have developed a subsistence economy based on livestock. The number of animals per family is generally low, but the total livestock load of the utilised areas is usually very high. Grazing is mostly extensive, without fencing, and with different summer-winter ranges, using lake shores and low valleys in winter, and mountain slopes and high valleys in the warmer months. However, in some cases the animals are maintained solely on low altitude terrain. The grassland areas, especially winter pastures, are generally degraded. Also, livestock grazing in forests has affected large areas and threatened tree regeneration. Communal property of the lands Law (23.302) in the Indigenous Policy and Support for Aboriginal Communities Act, established the policy for indigenous peoples at a national level. Within national parks and reserves, this law must be applied consistent with the principles established in the law (22.351) which governs the system of federal protected areas. One of the central mandates of the national indigenous-peoples policy is to give communities access to lands such that they can develop their traditional activities (rural, forestry, handicrafts, etc.). In national parks, it is necessary to give priority to the main goals of the protected area, i.e., nature conservation, maintenance of lands in a wild state, scientific research, and recreation. In national reserves, the sale of up to 10% of the area is permitted, but national parks, by contrast, must remain publicly owned. The existence of indigenous communal properties is, therefore, compatible with the concept of national reserves, and such lands can remain part of the protected areas system. Community areas are evaluated on a case-by-case basis, in terms of the legal status of the land, and its ecological, conservation, and recreation values. Based on these evaluations, government lands available for indigenous communities are chosen in relation to their ability to develop traditional economic activities on a long-term basis, compatible with conservation goals and public use of the protected area. Following these criteria, agreements have recently been reached to locate two community properties with Cayun and Raquithue communities,

8 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 851 and an official proposal has been made to the Canicul Community. Once agreements have been formalised, APN staff prepare drafts of the laws necessary for consolidating the transfer and changing the legal status from national park to national reserve if necessary. The premises of these agreements have been that the communal properties include all sites where the individual settlements of the community are located, traditional uses (forestry, livestock raising) of the properties are allowed if performed sustainably, and the most outstanding areas for tourist use (e.g., lake margins) must remain in public ownership for recreation. Provisions are made to ensure that the indigenous community inhabiting an area will receive direct benefits from tourist use; agreements establish that the community itself runs the primitive camping areas (which do not require major investments), and may also sell firewood and handicrafts, and rent horses, etc. Training is a key to the success of these programmes. Where tourist infrastructure requires more investment (such as full-services camping areas, lodges, hostels, etc.), agreements establish that the local indigenous community can receive up to 50% of the money paid to APN by the concessionaires. Also, the benefits that the concessionaires offer to the indigenous community through employment, revenuesharing, running complementary services, etc., are considered as an aspect of their selection. Progress Property Some ha in the eastern part of Lanin National Reserve, Lacar Zone, has been transferred as communal property to the Curruhuinca Mapuche Community. An agreement has been signed with Agrupacion Cayun Community for the transfer of 1300 ha on the north shore of Lacar Lake. The Agrupacion Raquithue Community has an agreement for the transfer of 950 ha as communal property on the north shore of Huechulafquen Lake. An agreement is also pending with the Agrupacion Mapuche Aigo Community, in the Rucachoroi area. With this, the land transfers to indigenous communities in Lanin National Park would be complete. The Rucachoroi case is peculiar in that a part of the community is within, and a part is outside, the protected area. Also, the areas historically used by livestock are very degraded compared with other areas, in part due to a drier and colder climate, which increases habitat fragility. Another reason is that historically the dominant livestock have been goats, which have a greater effect on the natural vegetation than cattle or sheep. The indigenous communities within Lanin National Park and National Reserve are shown in Table 2. The data on Aigo Community refers only to those living within the protected area. Technical assistance Assistance is usually provided by national parks, after the transfer of land, to ensure sustainable management. It should include a resource evaluation of the communal property and formulation of a sustainable multiple use plan, as well as provision of training and technical assistance and help with fund raising. Table 2 Indigenous communities in Lanin National Park and National Reserve. Community Basin Settlements Communal property Raquithue Canicul Cayun Curruhuinca Aigo Huechulafquen Huechulafquen Lacar Lacar Rucachoroi ha Under negotiation 1300 ha ha Pending

9 852 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 Projects under way include a Cayun Community Housing Plan, coordinated by APN and being developed by the settlers themselves, with cooperation from other government and NGOs and technical assistance for use of natural resources, which may be provided by the National Institute of Agrarian Technology (INTA), the National Secretary of Agriculture, or the NGO Fundacion Pro Patagonia. This programme is aimed at improving traditional uses and development of sustainable production on the newly acquired lands. In the Rucachoroi case there have been several good results, based on the work of the community, continuity in the work of park rangers and professionals of the national park, and on support received from other national and provincial institutions and NGOs. Another option being promoted experimentally is sustainable forest use. Management plans have been devised for the use of small areas by the Curruhuinca Community. Technical assistance and supervision, as well as assistance and training related to forest use, treatment and manufacture of forest products, and marketing have been provided. A significant success of the NGO Fundacion Pro Patagonia was their award of a grant from the European Community which was used to support several projects in the Curruhuinca, Cayun, and Aigo communities, through an action programme ending in Main problems and risks Increased population growth and the risk of discontinuity of the programme are of concern. Undoubtedly, the most serious problem related to rural settlers and indigenous communities associated with this programme is the increase of the resident human population. As long as the lands remained in government ownership, it was feasible to control the installation of new settlements, but this becomes very difficult after transfer of land to the communities. This problem is aggravated by unemployment in the cities, which stimulates those families belonging to the indigenous communites, but residing in cities or its surroundings, to return to the rural settlement. Paradoxically, the success of programmes for improvement of production and quality of rural life ultimately also attracts the settlement of new families in the community, which in turn can lead to failure of such programmes. A case in point is the Curruhuinca Community, which grew from 42 settlements and 403 people in 1985 to 108 settlements and 600 people in This unchecked population increase inevitably puts more pressure on natural resources, in this case to unsustainable levels. Also, the increments in production and income as a consequence of training and technical assistance programmes become insufficient to satisfy the demands of a growing population, so, in the end, there is no improvement in the income and quality of life of the original population of the settlements. Table visitor numbers in four Argentine Patagonian national parks, numbers predicted for 2003, and mean annual percentage growth in visitation to them for this period. Number of visitors 1995 Number of visitors projected for 2003 Mean annual visitation growth rate 1995/2003 Lanin % Visitors to the national parks Nahuel Huapi % Los Alerces % Los Glaciares %

10 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 853 Although results to date for improvement of traditional livestock raising and development of new forms of production and services are very promising, they have depended on outside support With increasing budgetary restrictions in the public sector, there is a risk that many projects, even successful ones, could be interrupted through curtailment of funding MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES: PUBLIC USE The following is based on Martin (1999b) Patagonia has become identified as a relevant tourist destination, both nationally and internationally The Atlantic coast, with its beaches and many concentrations of marine fauna, as well as the extensive steppes and the lakes region, constitute an increasingly attractive tourist environment Within this regional context, the Andean-Patagonian national parks fulfill an important role and attract at least visitors a year Visitors are expected to increase by up to 11 % annually between 1995 and 2003, with predicted by 2003 for four of the national parks (Lanin, Nahuel Huapi, Los Alerces, and Los Glaciares, Otero & Delia Cha 1996, Table 3) The wide range of tourist services offered in these national parks is illustrated by the distribution of tourist services and other attractions offered (see Fig 2), and testifies to the complexity involved in the control and management of public use in these parks Zoning is used as a means of reducing conflicts among national park users The categories used in park management plans (Fig 3) are as follows Strict Conservation Areas/Strict Nature Reserve (area intangible) Areas where any human activity, except scientific research, is forbidden Extensive Public Use Zone (area de uso pubhco extensivo) Areas where extensive uses, including scientific, educational, tourist, and recreational, but no large-scale or concentrated uses, are permitted Most of the protected areas belong to this category A wilderness character, with simple, low-impact infrastructure is provided, such as mountain refuges, camping areas with minimal services, trails, etc, for ecotounsm activities such as trekking and hiking, horse riding, mountain biking, rafting, climbing, sport fishing (for introduced species only), boating, etc Intensive Public Use Zone (area de uso pubhco intensivo) Relatively small areas where intensive tourism and recreation is allowed, with high concentrations of visitors and associated service infrastructure such as hotels, lodges, restaurants, camping facilities, etc Natural Resources Use Zone (area de aprovechamiento de recursos naturales) Areas with sustainable productive activities, subject to authorisation and control by APN to maintain the main ecological characteristics of the area Rural settlers or indigenous communities reside there, and regulated use of natural resources (livestock raising, forestry, etc ) is allowed Special Use Areas (areas de uso especial) Areas of limited size for administration, services or human settlement, unrelated to public use General criteria for planning and management of public use Criteria related to management of an area Regional tourism context It is particularly important to take into account the regional tourism trends and the development of services outside the protected areas, when planning for public use of the parks Planning is aimed at avoiding unnecessary environmental alterations to wild areas where similar services exist in the vicinity of protected areas, together with the development of services within protected areas, which are complementary to, and integrated with, regional tourism, for national and international visitors

11 854 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, PARQUE Y RESERVA NACIONAL NAHUEL HUAPI REPUBLICA ARGENTINA MAPA DESER VICIOS UbicaciónGeneral as Mart'ndalos sbuenos An-;: 6?')krri Andas(MCkm) 1 1 EjidosMunicipales m o -> /v ReservaNacional ParqueNaaonal DistanciasdesdeBanlocíiE mtemacionai Li mitei nte rprovi nci a l A/ Rutaasfaitada Ü A A _ II ' Ruta en npiada RutaNacional RutaProvincial Distanciaentrepuntos(km) Aerapuerto EstactondeServicio RefugiodeMontatia Campingorgamzado Campingagreste Secconal Guardaparque Hotel/ Hosteria Restaurant/Confitena AreaUrbanzada 40 km Fig. 2 Nahuel Huapi National Park and Reserve, showing distribution of existing tourist services. Reproduction authorised by Administracion de Parques Nacionales.

12 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 855 PARQUE NACIONAL LOS ALERCES REPUBLICA ARGENTINA ZONIF1CACION ESS Area de aprovechamiento de recursos naturales CU Area de uso especial a. Villa Futalafquen b. Presa Futaleufu al sin am a km A Fig. 3 Los Alerces National Park, showing use zones (see text for details). Reproduction authorised by Administracion de Parques Nacionales.

13 856 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 Development of new areas for use It has been demonstrated scientifically (Hammitt & Cole 1998) that the greatest environmental effects of human activity are felt during the first years after an area has been opened to public use. With time, impact levels tend to stabilise. This principle imposes an obligation to be cautious with areas that are in the first stages of use (slightly used trails, wild camping areas, rivers where rafting is beginning, new climbing locations, etc.), because it is in such areas that even small increases in use can generate significant environmental effects. Hence, the planning, equipping, and maintenance of areas to be opened for use, particularly in steep mountain areas with high rainfall, moist meadows, or alpine areas, rivers, and streams, are examples of particularly vulnerable habitats that require extra caution. Moreover, these are the types of environments where most of the ecotourism activities take place, such as hiking, horse riding, mountain biking, rafting, climbing, nordic skiing, etc. In response, environmental impact assessments, physical planning of public use areas, and research and monitoring of the effects of some tourism activities have recently been improved. Maintaining a diversity of activities within the parks There is an attempt to ensure that parks maintain, besides intensive use areas which offer many facilities, extensive areas protected in a wild state for the long term. This policy requires purposely maintaining various levels of development and allowing for different areas to cater for different segments of tourist demand. The segment seeking pristine environments has been growing steadily in recent years, and is expected to continue increasing due to the growing scarcity of wild areas worldwide. This criterion is applied not only to the provision of services, but also for regulating different recreational activities. This policy allows the maintenance of pristine environments and reduces conflicts among users with differing expectations and requirements. The same concept is applied to different parks of the region, e.g., Lanin and Nahuel Huapi have profiles markedly different from that of Perito Moreno. Restricting non-compatible activities This implies prohibiting or restricting development of activities which are not compatible with a protected wild area. Activities such as off-road vehicles, moto-cross, or jet boats produce environmental effects incompatible with protected area status. Others, such as jetski, water-ski, or common recreational activities such as ball games (football, volleyball, tennis, etc.), significantly annoy visitors of natural areas who hope to experience intimate contact with nature. It may be feasible to authorise such activities in well-defined sectors where interference can be minimised, but the general policy attempts to satisfy the needs of those visitors attracted by the natural features of the area, above those who want to indulge in activities or find services which are available and more appropriate outside protected areas. Preserving the public use of shorelines During the last 20 years, parks have adopted a policy of preserving shoreline environments for the general public. With concessions and permits the current policy is to provide a shoreline fringe for free public access and use, even on land allocated to some indigenous communities. Priority of public use over restricted uses In the past, many permits were issued to government organisations or private non-profit groups (educational, trade unions, religious, social, etc.), for exclusive use of significant areas. The basic principle behind the present policy is that national parks must offer options for general public recreation and use, and must be managed accordingly. The exclusive use of lands that the nation has decided to maintain under the public domain for particular

14 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 857 organisations, cannot be permitted In a few exceptional cases it has been necessary to issue some permits, but only to organisations which in turn harbour others within them, so the number of potential users has greatly increased Basic policies for infrastructure development The management policy on installation of significant services (hotels, lodges, camping areas with full services, etc ) is based on an assumption that, where feasible, these will be installed in towns or villages near the park, so maintaining protected natural areas in the wildest possible state This policy also stimulates generation of jobs, and the full use of the existing infrastructure and services in these towns When the development of lodging services in nearby towns is not feasible nor convenient, the construction of lodges, small hotels, and hostels is allowed, within areas zoned for intensive use In special cases, small- to mediumsized hotel construction is allowed, depending on distance to service centres, features of the sites, and profiles of visitors Within protected areas, priority is given to the installation of refuges/huts or camping areas over hotel/hostel construction In intensive use zones, installations of main attractions, e g, restaurants, kiosks, coffee shops, public restrooms, etc, is permitted for the use of daytime visitors With very few exceptions, service areas remain the property of the national state Criteria for granting concessions and permits Offer services tailored to different income levels There is a policy of generating good quality services with adequate alternatives for different socio economic or income levels In many cases one concessionaire combines two kinds of service, e g, a full-services camping area linked to a nearby primitive camping area with low rates Avoid exclusive concessions There have been several negative experiences caused by concessions granting exclusive rights to one operator for prolonged periods This lack of competition is generally bad for users and encourages higher prices or reduced quality The original intention was often to grant initial advantages and incentives to developers of new activities or heavy investments However, experience has demonstrated that it is better to use other incentives and establish a concession as competitive instead of exclusive At most, an exclusive concession should be granted only for a very limited initial period Involve the service providers in conservation and management of the park Many recent concessions and permits require the provider to have some responsibility for protection and management of the parks, e g, printing brochures, constructing signs, cleaning areas contiguous with the concession or service area, providing fire-fighting or radio communication equipment, and maintaining trails This generally involves a reduction in fees, but assures a direct return in the form of goods and services for the park where the concession is operating Also, this policy increases the commitment of the provider to contribute to responsible management of a larger area, instead of focusing their interest exclusively withm their sector Link settlers within the park to tourism services In recent decades there has been an attempt to involve the rural settlers withm parks, as far as possible, with running tourism services appropriate to their income level From the servicing of camping areas, to small hostels and restaurants, there is now a full range of services being run by local settlers When the necessary investments exceed the capability of the nearby settler, complementary activities may be offered, such as horse rental, firewood provision, or local guiding

15 858 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 Public investment in services of low return rate Some services commonly needed within protected areas, such as primitive camping areas, typically have a low return rate and so do not attract large or medium investors. Small operators may be assisted with the provision of the necessary services and facilities by the government, and then given contracts for facility exploitation and maintenance. This allows recovery of the investments in the mid term while avoiding low-quality services or economic failure of small enterprises. Concessions and permits policy As a general principle, concessions for excursions, food provision, camping, etc., are allocated through bidding or public tendering. Concessionaires then sign a contract in which the duration, characteristics of the service, obligations, and fees to be paid to APN are established. The majority of services involving medium-to-large investments are allocated through public bidding. To simplify control, the fee is a percentage, not of the profits but of the total net income (generally, around 5%), plus a base or minimum fee. The duration is established according to the investment and time needed for its recovery. With very few exceptions, services are installed on public lands, with a provision that any infrastructure will remain the property of the state. Contracts may be extended subject to good quality service and some additional investments. Permits are a mechanism for directly authorising an activity, wihout offering any kind of security to the service provider. However, arbitrary cancellations can be avoided if the services are run according to established conditions. Permits are frequently used to authorise rural settlers or indigenous communities to develop some commercial activities related to tourism, as a way of stimulating shifts in economic activities. This may allow eradication or substantial reduction in uses that have negative conservation effects, e.g., livestock in forest areas. Permits may authorise settlers to rent horses, control camping areas with minimal services, sell handicrafts or homemade food products, or, in some cases, even run restaurants or small hostels. In these latter cases, the permit may also include the land where the service is located. Permits are also given to private entrepreneurs who initiate activities compatible with the protected area but which have no specific market. This allows for testing of a service and using the experience for adjusting regulations, evaluating the possible negative environmental effects and assessing the potential demand, costs, return rate, and economic feasibility. If successful, direct permits are cancelled, and the service is formalised through the normal bidding process. Income from public use This comes mainly from fees and rights paid by commercial operators and service providers, or entrance fees, or from permits for some recreational activities, paid directly by users, as with fishing or hunting permits. The main source of income supporting the operational costs of the national parks system (excluding salaries of permanent personnel) comes from entrance fees. These vary with the spatial design of the park and the facilities provided. Discounts or exemptions are available for seniors, children, or residents of nearby towns. Recently a new experimental "Pase Verde" (Green Pass) system allows visitors to access several national parks, for periods of 5 and 10 days. A significant number of access points lack attendants and, because of this, a large proportion of visitors do not pay entrance fees. International roads connecting with Chile, and national and provincial roads traversing some parks, make it difficult to distinguish people making direct and purposeful use of the park from those only in transit. Goals and challenges for the future The need to improve services in the intensive-use sites does not remove the need to pay special attention to the clear increase in activities related to ecotourism, adventure-tourism,

16 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 859 and the more active ways of visiting wild areas In recent years there has been a marked increase in these activities, as opposed to the more contemplative and passive uses of the past The natural areas are not adequately prepared for this rapid increase in new forms of tourism While the traditional, contemplative tourism was almost exclusively channelled via roads, intensive-use trails, lookouts, hotels, etc, ecotounsm causes a much greater dispersion of visitors and overloading of camping sites, mountain trails, mountain refuges, etc This has had several unfortunate consequences, including inadequate attention to visitors, inadequate capacity of refuges (huts) and camping areas, lack of signs, inadequate brochures, etc, as well as difficulties in control of the increasing number and dispersion of visitors There are also the different and increased environmental effects, such as garbage accumulation, erosion, generation of spontaneous trails, increased fire risks, pollution caused by sewage, unauthorised firewood extraction, degradation of fragile areas, etc All of these will become more serious if the necessary management actions are not taken This increase in visitor numbers and the change in recreational behaviour have generated new challenges and goals for the management of public use Improve the quality of services in public use areas or sites Traditional, intensive-use attractions These services are generally unsatisfactory in quality, and/or capacity, for various reasons including outdated concessions, excessively loose contracts, and perpetuation of supposedly transient situations Whatever the cause, it is important to modernise and adapt the services of many of the most popular tourist attractions of the Patagoman national parks Services in these intensively used areas must have a capacity adequate for the current visitor numbers, except when there are environmental reasons to the contrary Regulation of visitor numbers and improvement of services are needed to match the importance and national and international prestige of the parks This is not yet happening at Puerto Panuelo, on Victoria Island, Bosque de Arrayanes, in Nahuel Huapi National Park, Puerto Canoas at the base of Volcan Lamn, in Lanin National Park, and Glaciar Pento Moreno, in Los Glaciares National Park Wilderness areas The growing number of visitors is making the management of wilderness areas (those without any services or attention) quite inadequate As an example, a large number of the socalled free camping areas (camping authorised, but without services) are now severely damaged because of the lack of basic services such as toilets, litter collection and disposal, selling of firewood, etc, and visitor control The maintenance and attention that such areas demand may exceed the state's ability to deal with them through the current park administration Park administration has been developing a programme to ensure that camping areas, formerly without services, have been concessioned, but with very low user fees They have been maintained as primitive areas, with only minimal facilities (basic toilets, fireplaces, litter gathering, control) Results so far are satisfactory, both environmentally and in service quality Improve the trails network Inadequate design of trails and lack of structures for erosion control, and maintenance, combined with increased use in recent years, have caused quite considerable environmental impacts in almost every public use area, in many trails severe degradation is occurring Special attention and budget is needed to design trails for different user types (horses, hiking, mountain bikes), and for maintenance, improvement, redesign, or rerouting Several training activities to prepare staff to cope with these issues have been developed with the

17 860 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 co-operation of volunteer personnel of the United States National Park Service and Forest Service, with the ultimate goal of having a trained trail crew in each park. Improve services in mountain activities Mountain refuges or huts built several decades ago, particularly in Nahuel Huapi National Park, are now unable to cope with demand. The services are often inadequate and there are environmental problems which can be remedied only with modern technologies for heating, cooking, lighting, sewage treatment, etc. It is necessary to improve the management of high mountain activities, including climbing, access trails, refuges, base camps, guides, and control and safety conditions in general. Services such as horse rental, concession of the refuges, etc., must be coordinated and integrated. Improve the quantity and quality of information available to visitors A World Bank loan has allowed improvements and developments related to public use in the four Andean national parks with highest visitor numbers, particularly visitor/interpretation centres now planned for each park. Construction of access/information offices, of housing facilities for volunteers, and improved capacity for producing information are also planned. A database of public use has been recently developed, directed at increasing management efficiency and information on existing services in the parks. One ultimate goal is to develop interactive information systems available to the public in each park headquarters and in information centres. Questionnaires record visitor opinions on the services available in parks. Improve environmental education for visitors The World Bank loan will also finance construction of interpretation centres in key locations within the same four national parks to increase visitor information on, and appreciation of, protected areas. Interpretation centres in the main cities adjacent to parks will also allow information to be displayed to help improve the knowledge and appreciation of visitors. A sympathetic attitude of visitors is essential for maintaining the environmental quality of extensive use areas, where the direct control of visitor behaviour is virtually impossible. Monitor impacts Procedures for monitoring the negative effects of public use in wild areas is necessary, so that unacceptable or irreversible damage can be prevented. In recent years, monitoring requirements were incorporated in some concessions, particularly as a mandate of the environmental impact assessments. Also, a form for environmental monitoring of camping areas is being launched experimentally; we are also planning a form for trails. An interesting applied research/monitoring project is being implemented by APN itself about the potential effects of rafting on the specialised torrent duck (Merganetta armata) (see below). While recognising the great importance of monitoring impacts, we want to emphasise that a weaker point in our management cycle is the limited capacity of the organisation for performing in time the necessary management and mitigation actions in many cases already identified by park rangers and professionals. Analysis of site carrying capacity Experience is needed in the application of methodologies for determining maximum sustainable capacities of the vulnerable and/or demanded sites. Argentina lacks a tradition of limiting visitor numbers to a wild area, but the current increase in tourist use will make this inevitable in high-use areas.

18 Increase and diversify control Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 861 Rangers alone cannot control the increase and greater dispersion of public use in parks Measures of control and other procedures are needed, working in direct contact with visitors, e g, volunteers, concessionaires, permissionaires, guides, etc Coordinated functioning of such networks should allow efficient control of public use, for environmental protection and public safety Improve facilities for disabled/impaired people Recent concessions and permits include obligations to construct facilities for disabled/ impaired people and the most important trails, ports, toilets, etc, will eventually be adapted to their needs Increase the efficiency of the financial income policy Park administration plans to increase the number of access and entrance ticket offices, and also to try selling entrance tickets through the network of concessionaires II applied to all providers, this system will overcome many problems of fees collection in sectors adjacent to national or provincial roads, or where there are no access offices This will ensure that every visitor using park services will have to pay the entrance fee The selling of information materials (maps, guidebooks, etc ) and souvenirs with park motifs in a series of interpretation centres and access offices will ensure an appropriate distribution network, and should be an important income source OTHER MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES Neighbouring cities In some parks of northern Patagonia (Lani'n, Nahuel Huapi, Lago Puelo) there are settlements ranging from small villages to small- to medium sized cities (the largest is Bariloche, with inhabitants) bordering the park or completely enclosed by it All these have tourism in the surrounding natural areas as one of their main economic activities, which makes them interested in conservation of the parks but also creates border problems and a growing demand for permission to use the natural resources of the parks (e g, firewood) It should be a mutual concern, both of national parks and the associated towns, to make strategic decisions about limits on future demographic growth of these urban settlements and also to coordinate control in adjacent protected areas Large infrastructure works Development pressures, along with the increase in tourism and the growing commercial exchanges with Chile, through the framework of Mercosur, also create a demand for large infrastructure projects These include roads, international passes, pipelines, and hydroelectric dams, which in some cases plan to encroach on national parks Some such pressures have so far been succesfully counteracted In the mid and long term, however, it will be necessary to develop a regional strategy to safeguard the protected areas, instead of permitting pressure to accumulate case-by-case Introduced plant and animal species This worldwide problem has some characteristics specific to the Southern Hemisphere, related to its evolution, history of human colonisation, and economic development In Patagonia, the intentional introduction of exotic species new to the region seems to have diminished considerably, but has not completely ceased Some cases can still have a major effect (CARPFS 1997) Intentional translocations of exotic species already present in Patagonia,

19 862 Journal of The Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 31, 2001 from one location to another, are potentially serious and increasing (CARPFS 1997). Most introduced species are far from stable in their distribution, and extensions continue. Some species are likely to expand considerably, and could threaten much of the country, e.g., red deer {Cervus elaphus), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), North American mink (Mustela vison), European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and North American beaver (Castor canadensis). The last would have potentially catastrophic consequences if it reached the continent from its present range on Tierra del Fuego. In most cases it would be impossible, or at least extremely difficult, to stop the expansion of aggressive biota, so it is necessary to choose wisely the higher priority cases for action. Advances have been made with some exotic plants, especially pine trees. Some pine stands have been eradicated and forest regulations have been changed to prohibit new pine plantations on private lands within national reserves. Moreover, some experimental plantations mixing native species with former exotic stands are being tried. The control of introduced animals is usually much more difficult. It has not been possible up to now to implement management policies which guarantee a cost (economic):benefit (conservation) ratio such that a large-scale control programme is justified, given the scarce financial and human resources available. The species nearest to qualifying for attention is the red deer. In this case conservation and sport hunting should have important common interests because both would benefit from a reduction in density. In Patagonian parks and reserves regulated fishing and hunting of introduced species is allowed only in certain places. Feral cattle are also a serious problem in some areas. National parks and provincialisation Proposals for the provincialisation of national parks appear periodically, which would allow transfer of the parks from national to provincial status. We consider this unwise because it would pose a high risk for conservation of the areas, and it would imply a substantial devaluation of their legal protection status and hierarchy. It would involve taking the best samples of Argentinian nature out of the primary sphere of the general national interest, while also dispersing valuable human and material resources which today are barely enough to create a "critical mass". In the whole APN, including administrative and support personnel, park rangers, and professionals, there are only 680 workers involved in the protection of 32 national parks. Nevertheless, interaction and cooperation between the federal government and the provinces could be improved through systems of consultation and participation between them, as well as with the local communities closest to each protected area. Fire management Very recently, the fire management policy has been critically re-analysed, involving a revision of its paradigms, discussion of the idea of complete supression of fire, and consideration of the possibility of preventive management of fuels in high risk areas (prescribed burning, regulation of firewood use, etc.) (Salguero 1998). Fire is a disturbance which has significantly affected the forests of the region for centuries, such that its complete elimination could change the trajectory of the local ecosystem dynamics and increase the risk of large wild fires. Wildlife records and applied research From 1990, a system has been implemented for obtaining information from park rangers on sightings or records of vertebrate species considered to have "special conservation value". In their routine patrols, park rangers record, on special forms, signs or sightings of any species

20 Martin & Chehebar The national parks of Argentinian Patagonia 863 from a predetermined list Although the information is, at best, semi-quantitative, it uses a significant strength of the national parks system, the park rangers living within the protected areas Moreover, there are very few other financial resources available for applied research or monitoring In addition, from the early 1980s programmes on vulnerable species, or those of conservation concern, have been implemented The huillin or southern river otter (Lontra provocax) lives exclusively in Chile and Argentina The main populations have been searched, located, and mapped, and a monitoring programme of its distribution and general status, based on signs, is being conducted at 5-year intervals, mainly in Nahuel Huapi National Park and also in Tierra del Fuego National Park The huemul {Hippocamelus bisulcus) is a Patagonian deer exclusive to Argentina and Chile Under the Huemul Conservation Programme, a park ranger in each park of the region is designated as responsible for coordinating field studies for locating and mapping populations Monitoring of some populations with sign based techniques is also beginning The torrent duck {Merganetta armata) is a specialised duck, naturally scarce, which lives exclusively in the Andes and requires clean streams with rapids Parks personnel in Lani'n National Park are studying the potential effect of recreational rafting on the duck, since they share the same habitat preferences Several endemic species, including the Challhuaco frog (Atelognathus nitoi), the Laguna Blanca frog (Atelognathus patagomcus), and the social tuco-tuco (Ctenomys sociabihs), a rodent, have been studied through research programmes with universities or other academic institutions A similar approach is being applied, on the initiative of APN or the researchers, to other natural resources or problems, e g, the alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides) We must significantly increase the amount of applied research to address the numerous and complex management challenges, a task which cannot be accomplished by APN staff alone We are keen to discuss methods of improving and increasing the generation and application of scientific knowledge for the management of protected natural areas with park staff from other southern temperate countries The availability of funding sources, co-operation between management agencies and the scientific community, stimulation of applied research, and translation of results into actions, are among the issues of concern Cultural resources The national parks in Patagonia harbour a significant number of cultural and archaeological resources, some of noteable importance There are wall paintings, shelters, and caves, reaching in some cases 9000 years of antiquity At the inception of APN, its staff offered a basic protection of important cultural resources, but it has been taking steps towards more integrated and systematic conservation only in the last few years This has involved specific regulation, the assistance of specialised professionals, and the compilation of a database for cultural resources CONSERVATION IN ARID PATAGONIA As stated earlier, almost all the federally protected areas in Patagonia are within the narrow Andean fringe There are few protected areas in most of the remaining extensive Patagonian region The extra-andean, and Patagonia (which encompasses the Patagonian Steppe and part of the Monte) includes ecosystems essentially confined to Argentina They occupy a large area (approximately km 2, or 24% of continental Argentina) The Patagonian Steppe is classified as vulnerable and of highest regional priority, and is one of the 200 world ecosystems