Forts : A Pennsylvania Typology

Transcription

1 Idiaa Uiversity of Pesylvaia Kowledge IUP Theses ad Dissertatios (All) 8-20 Forts 4-90: A Pesylvaia Typology Katie M. Turer Idiaa Uiversity of Pesylvaia Follow this ad additioal works at: Recommeded Citatio Turer, Katie M., "Forts 4-90: A Pesylvaia Typology" (20). Theses ad Dissertatios (All) This Thesis is brought to you for free ad ope access by Kowledge IUP. It has bee accepted for iclusio i Theses ad Dissertatios (All) by a authorized admiistrator of Kowledge IUP. For more iformatio, please cotact cclouser@iup.edu, sara.parme@iup.edu.

2 FORTS 4-90: A PENNSYLVANIA TYPOLOGY A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies ad Research i Partial Fulfilmet of the Requiremets for the Degree Master of Arts Katie M. Turer Idiaa Uiversity of Pesylvaia August 20

3 20 Katie M. Turer All Rights Reserved ii

4 Idiaa Uiversity of Pesylvaia School of Graduate Studies ad Research Departmet of Athropology We hereby approve the thesis of Katie M. Turer Cadidate for the degree of Master of Arts Bejami Ford, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Athropology, Advisor Phillip Neusius, Ph.D. Professor of Athropology Steve Schroeder, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History ACCEPTED Rady L. Marti, Ph.D. Dea School of Graduate Studies ad Research iii

5 Title: Forts 4-90: A Pesylvaia Typology Author: Katie M. Turer Thesis Chair: Dr. Bejami Ford Thesis Committee Members: Dr. Philip Neusius Dr. Steve Schroeder To date, o typology of Pesylvaia forts has bee completed so this research fills a void i the archaeological ad historical records. Research was coducted to develop a typology of mid to late 8 th cetury forts datig from the Frech ad Idia War to the Revolutioary War. The typology attributes iclude: fort ame; coflict; pla ad layout; who commissioed the fort; who built the fort; fort group; square footage; year of costructio; year of abadomet; umber of years abadoed; purpose for costructio; locatio; distace to water; distace to military roads; distace to Native America pathways; fort reuse; costructio materials; date the fort was last see; archeological ivestigatios; ad Vauba ispiratio. The typology was applied to forts located throughout North America. This study additioally examied the variability i 8 th cetury society ad techology as represeted i the fortificatio methods ad styles of the Frech, British ad America Empires. iv

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take a momet to express my thaks ad gratitude to the people who have stood by me as I wet through the process of writig this thesis. I would like to thak the members of my committee: Dr. Bejami Ford, Associate Professor of Athropology. Without Dr. Ford, this thesis would ot be what it is. Thak you for always beig there for me to bouce ideas off of, for keepig me focused ad, perhaps most importatly for remidig me that this thesis was doable, ad that it held meaig for academia. To Dr. Steve Schroder, Associate Professor of History, ad Dr. Philip Neusius, Professor of Athropology I would like to thak you for readig my thesis ad providig me with may valuable commets. Your feedback ad advice made this thesis eve better. To the School of Graduate Studies ad Research at the Idiaa Uiversity of Pesylvaia, I would like to say thak you for awardig me a Graduate Research Grat. With the moey so geerously awarded to me by the School of Graduate Studies ad Research, I could purchase referece materials without creatig fear for my persoal fiaces. This fudig also allowed me to travel to research istitutios, which provided me with ivaluable iformatio. I additioally wish to thak Harriso Wick ad the staff of Special Collectios at the Idiaa Uiversity of Pesylvaia library for their assistace i my research. They made the research portio of this thesis much easier to complete. To Katherie Ludwig of the David Library of the America Revolutio whose coutless hours of scaig ad ig resources provided ivaluable iformatio ad saved me the trip to Washigto s Crossig, Pesylvaia. I will always remember your kidess ad devotio to researchers. I would also like to express gratitude to Dr. Douglas Scott of the Uiversity of Nebraska-Licol for providig me with the ispiratio to complete this work. Without Dr. v

7 Scott, the idea for this thesis would ot have come to fruitio ad a gap withi the kowledge of coflict archaeology would have cotiued. I must also thak Douglas MacGregor of the Pesylvaia State Archives whose kowledge of Frech ad Idia War forts has bee extremely helpful. Thaks must also be give to Kate Adam ad Kate Craig for assistig with the proof readig of this documet. Additioally, I would like to thak my dear husbad Joh Turer. You have supported me through all thigs. From movig to Pesylvaia, so I could atted graduate school, to my struggles through graduate classes ad the frustratios ad satisfactios of completig my thesis you have bee my rock. Your love ad support are what have kept me sae i the may hours of writig ad researchig. Your willigess to talk me out of quittig to promptig me to keep after my dream meas the world to me. I love you ad caot say thak you eough. Fially, I would like to thak my parets, Alle ad Cheryl Sadoe, for teachig me that I am capable of doig aythig that I set my mid to. From the early days of elemetary school through graduate school, you have always believed i me ad cheered me o from the sidelies. You told me to dream big ad to take life by the hors ad by completig this thesis, I have doe just that. vi

8 This thesis is dedicated to my father, Alle Sadoe, the bravest perso I kow who taught me to ever give up. vii

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONFLICTS AND FORTS METHODOLOGY RESULTS... INTERPRETATIONS SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES APPENDECIES Appedix A- Coded Values for Pesylvaia ad No-Pesylvaia Forts Appedix B- Pesylvaia Typology Appedix C- No-Pesylvaia Typology Appedix D- Complete List of Pesylvaia Forts Used i Aalysis Appedix E- Complete List of Pesylvaia Forts Not Used i Aalysis Appedix F- Complete List of No-Pesylvaia Forts Used i Aalysis Appedix G- Forts Maps of Pesylvaia viii

10 LIST OF TABLES Table Page Pesylvaia Typology Average Square Footage Measuremets by Costructor Group Average Square Footage of Each Pla ad Layout Costructed by British Average Square Footage of Each Pla ad Layout Costructed by Coloials Degree of Vauba Ispiratio by Fort Egieer Group Nearest Neighbor Aalysis Data Pesylvaia Forts with Kow Locatios Total Number of Forts by Costructio Material... 9 Average Square Footage Measuremets of No-Pesylvaia Forts Pla ad Layout Compared with Average Square Footage for British Forts Pla ad Layout Compared with Average Square Footage for Frech Forts Degree of Vauba Ispiratio by Fort Egieer Group No-Pesylvaia Forts with Miles to Water Fort Costructio Materials by Group..... Average Distace to Water by Group Costructio Materials of the Frech ad Idia War Overall Fort Pla ad Layouts for the Frech ad Idia War Fort Costructio Materials Treds for Frech ad Idia War Forts ix

11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Fort Pitt with blockhouse ad redoubt highlighted Geological Map of the couties of Pesylvaia LSGP Lie Military Roads of Braddock ad Forbes... The Proclamatio Lie of Measuremets used for the Vauba fortificatio method... 3 Measuremets used for the Vauba fortificatio method Fort Loudo, Virgiia depictig star fort shape Fort Bedford as irregular durable fortificatio Example of siegecraft trechig... 4 Cross sectio of simple fortificatio Map of Pesylvaia forts used i aalysis Compariso of square footages by group withi Pesylvaia Map of Pesylvaia s Frech ad Idia War forts with kow locatios... 6 Map of kow Native America pathways Map of kow military roads... 3 Fort Alle by Bejami Frakli Fort Veago by aoymous Fort Bedford by Joh Rocque i Map of Fort Pitt Map of Fort Burd Map of Fort Halifax Map of Fort Augusta x

12 Figure Page 24 Pla of the retreched camp at Fort Ligoier, Map of Fort Machault Map of Fort Duquese Square footages for No-Pesylvaia without outlier Square footages of No-Pesylvaia with outlier Mapped No-Pesylvaia forts Frech map of Fort Bull map of the Fort at Number Map of Fort Detroit map of Fort Froteac map of Fort Froteac xi

13 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION The act of armed coflict has bee edemic throughout huma history i a multitude of cultures. By uderstadig how ad why groups egage i coflicts with other groups, it is possible to gai isights ito cultural ideals ad values. The disciplie of coflict archaeology, or battlefield archaeology as it is referred to i the Uited States, seeks to obtai such isights about the coflicts ad wars that cotributed to the developmet of the moder world. Withi the Uited States, as coflict archaeology cotiues to develop, there has bee a icrease i the umber of topics that require attetio ad study. Oe of these topics is the o-battle compoets of coflict ad war, a compoet that icludes forts. While the Uited States was still i its ifacy, the fort was a crucial compoet for survival, offerig ot oly protectio for military persoel ad supplies but also civilias i hostile eviromets. Examples of the earliest forts costructed withi the New World iclude the Spaish coloial Fort Sa Jua, which was costructed i 6 i what is ow North Carolia, ad the British fort at Jamestow costructed i 60 (Beck et al. 2006:6; Korwolf ad Korwolf 2002:3). Archaeologists i the Uited States have traditioally studied forts by coductig thorough backgroud research ad the excavatig the structural remais of the forts. However, as forts begi to be studied by coflict archaeologists, it has become ecessary for complete fort typologies to be developed i order to assist coflict archaeologists i their study of forts. By utilizig a fort typology, archaeologists are able to quickly examie forts by comparig attributes for shared traits specific to the culture that claims the structure. Lists of forts exist o the atioal level, such as a 2006 publicatio by Bud Haigs titled Forts of the Uited States: A Historical Dictioary 6th through 9th Ceturies ad the website NorthAmericaForts.com.

14 Fort lists also exist at the state level, such as the 960 publicatio by William A. Huter titled Forts o the Pesylvaia Frotier, 3-8 ad the 996 publicatio by Louis M. Waddell ad Bruce D. Bomberger titled The Frech ad Idia War i Pesylvaia 3-63: Fortificatio ad Struggle Durig the War for Empire. Accordig to the Merriam-Webster dictioary, a list is a simple series of words or umerals (as the ames of persos or objects: the total umber to be cosidered or icluded (Merriam-Webster 204a). A typology, by defiitio, is a system used for puttig thigs ito groups accordig to how they are similar: the study of how thigs ca be divided ito differet groups (Merriam-Webster 204b). Iterestigly, however, the author of this thesis has bee able to idetify oly oe attempt at a fort typology which divided the forts of the Ohio Valley (preset day Ohio, orthwester West Virgiia, wester Pesylvaia ad easter Idiaa) i the 8 th cetury ito three levels based o fuctio ad layout (Keller et. al 20:83). Accordig to the fort typology developed for the Ohio Valley, Level I forts cosist of govermet-built forts ad strogholds that were the mai supply storehouses ad defesive structures costructed to secure the America foothold i the territory. Level II forts were also govermet-built but served a slightly less vital fuctio as military garrisos ad they teded to be built more quickly tha Level I forts;" ad Level III forts [which] were primarily built ear settlemets by civilias as a lie of defese agaist Native America raids (Keller et. al. 20:83). While this typology has divided the forts of the Ohio Valley ito types, the typology could be expaded ad modified to uderstad ad study the forts of Pesylvaia. To address the lack of a detailed typology of Pesylvaia forts, a typology of Pesylvaia s forts has bee costructed. Presetly, o typology of Pesylvaia forts has bee completed despite the presece of fort lists. For the Pesylvaia fort typology, oly forts 2

15 datig from the mid-to-late 8 th cetury were utilized because the styles of fortificatio, artillery, ad styles of warfare are comparable durig this time period, meaig that similar military methods were implemeted durig this time by the Europea powers ad their coloies. To complete the typology ad to aswer questios pertaiig to mid-to-late 8 th cetury America culture, three research objectives were developed to guide research: Research Objective : Develop a typology of Pesylvaia forts datig to the mid to late 8 th cetury. This research objective etails creatig a comprehesive list of forts ad developig a typology based o their attributes. Research Objective 2: Coduct a compariso betwee all groups of forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War. This research objective was desiged as a way to compare the forts of all groups withi Pesylvaia, which will allow for the idetificatio of differig cultural treds betwee the two coutries. Research Objective 3: Use the Pesylvaia fort typology to examie variability amog 8 th cetury forts, ad examie how these variatios relate to treds i 8 th cetury society ad techology. This research objective was created to demostrate how the typology could be used to aswer research questios. For the purposes of this research, a fort is defied as a structure that was erected, whether by military persoel or civilias, i order to defed ad hold a strategic locatio. Strategic locatios iclude those locatios whose loss would be detrimetal to a people s military plas or detrimetal to idividual property. Blockhouses ad redoubts are ot icluded as forts withi this study. Accordig to Robiso, a blockhouse is a [s]mall fortified buildig used as a place of retreat or as a flakig device i forts (Robiso 9:9 quoted i Babits ad Gadulla 3

16 203:26). Similarly, a redoubt is a eclosed fortificatio that has bee etreched ad possesses a tower or elevated platform from whece the coutry roud the place may be discovered (Babits ad Gadulla 203:29). A fort may possess both blockhouses ad redoubts (Figure ), but these structures ca also occur idepedetly of a fort. Blockhouses ad redoubts, both preset withi the state of Pesylvaia, were ot icluded withi this typology or aalysis as both structures may occur idividually devoid of a fort. Furthermore, blockhouses ad redoubts do ot fulfill the defiitio of fort used withi this study as they were ot built with the explicit purpose of defedig ad holdig a strategic locatio but rather served as stoppig poits betwee forts. Additioally, blockhouses ad redoubts may also occur as idividual structures withi a larger fort. Oly structures that were erected i a groupig with the explicit purpose of holdig a strategic geographic locatio were used i this study. Figure. This image of Fort Pitt created by architectural historia Charles Stotz depicts a blockhouse, withi the red circle, ad a redoubt, deoted by the blue lie (Stotz 200:3). 4

17 This thesis is segmeted i chapters to guide the reader through the process i which the research was coducted. As Chapter provided the itroductory remarks for this study, Chapter 2 will provide the historical backgroud of coflicts ad forts. Chapter 3 will preset the methodology of this thesis. Chapter 4 will discuss the results while Chapter will preset iterpretatios. Chapter 6 will preset the summary ad coclusio of this research ad will explore future work that ca be coducted with this research.

18 CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONFLICTS AND FORTS Durig the coloial period, the thirtee coloies experieced coflict i a multitude of ways, icludig coflict agaist other atios ad agaist other coloies. Durig the mid-to late 8 th cetury the coloy of Pesylvaia was active i five coflicts, ot icludig the ogoig coflict betwee the Europea settlers of the coloy ad several Native America tribes. Through this chapter, the history of these five wars will be provided i cojuctio with the effects these coflicts had o the developig coloy of Pesylvaia. After backgroud iformatio is provided for each of the coflicts, additioal iformatio will be provided o the history ad costructio of 8 th cetury forts i coloial America, Britai, ad Frace. The Frech ad Idia War 4-63 The Frech ad Idia War, 4-63, was the America Theater compoet of the Seve Years War, which was waged i Europe from 6 to 63 (Szabo 2008:). This coflict has bee described as the far-flug clash of arms that spread from North America to Europe, West Africa, Asia, the Caribbea basi, ad the seas betwee ad was dubbed the origial first world war by Wisto Churchill (Babits ad Gadulla 203:9). While the coflict may have officially begu i the America coloies, the politics that fueled the coflict origiated i Europe. Durig the 8 th cetury, from the 30s to the 0s, the British govermet maitaied that the pricipal threat to the Europea balace of power was Frace, which maitaied the largest army withi Europe (Scott ad Simms 200:2; Szabo 2008:3). Tesios were heighteed by the aimosities betwee the Protestat British ad the Catholic Frech (Scott ad Simms 200:86). 6

19 The circumstaces i which the Frech ad Idia War bega withi the America coloies were as charged as the politics ad religious tesios of Europe. By the 40s the Frech, the British, the coloies of Pesylvaia ad Virgiia, ad the Iroquois, had all come to a startlig realizatio: whoever cotrolled the upper Ohio River valley could cotrol the gateway to the middle of the cotiet (Babits ad Gadulla 203:0-; Aderso 2000:30). Traditioally, the Iroquois had ihabited the area, which cotaied the Forks of the Ohio, ad it was through this ally that the British America coloists made their claim to the regio; arguig that the Iroquois had etrusted the care of their lads to the British Crow whe the bod was forged betwee the two atios (Huter 960:0). As the British coloists slowly moved westward ad the umber of British traders bega to icrease o the wester frotier of Pesylvaia ad Virgiia, the goveror-geeral of New Frace, the Comte de La Glassoière, ordered a detachmet commaded by Captai Pierre-Joseph de Céloro de Blaiville to reew La Salle s earlier Frech claim to the Ohio Coutry (Aderso 2000:2-26; Huter 960:; Waddell 996:8). Céloro marked the boudary of lad claimed by the Frech by buryig iscribed lead plates i the groud (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:-2). Based o a lad grat awarded to Virgiia by the Kig of Eglad i 0, the Ohio Compay of Virgiia set Christopher Gist to the Ohio River Valley to erect a fortified storehouse i a attempt to maitai a presece at the Forks of the Ohio. This actio led to the Frech demolishig the store ad sedig the British back withi their territory (Aderso 2000:2; Huter 960:39; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:-2; Huter 960:9). While the British retreated, the Frech bega costructig a umber of forts Fort de la Presqu Isle, Fort de la Rivière au Boeuf, ad Fort Machault i what is ow wester Pesylvaia i a attempt to maitai their presece i the area (Aderso 2006:3). Whe the aget from the Ohio

20 Compay retured to Virgiia ad reported that the Frech had destroyed the storehouse, the Virgiia goveror, Robert Diwiddie, ordered Lieuteat Coloel George Washigto to march to Fort de la Rivière au Boeuf ad demad that the Frech extricate themselves from Virgiia soil (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:-2). It should be oted that the boudaries of Pesylvaia i the 0s do ot reflect the curret boudaries of the commowealth (Figure 2). Figure 2. Geealogical Map of the Couties of Pesylvaia. Washigto ad his detachmet marched to their meetig with the Frech ad arrived at the fort o December, 3. Washigto preseted Goveror Diwiddie s demads to the Frech commader Jacques Legardeur de Sait-Pierre who respectfully iformed Washigto that it was ot withi his powers to leave the fort ad that i order to do so he would have to obtai permissio from his superior, the Goveror-Geeral of Frace, the Marquis Duquese (Aderso 2000:43-3). Havig completed his objective, Washigto ad his detachmet departed from Fort de la Rivière au Boeuf o December 6. Goveror Diwiddie iterpreted the 8

21 refusal of the Frech to remove themselves from Virgiia s wester frotier as a act of ope hostility. He grated a military commissio of Captai to William Tret, a aget of the Ohio Compay, whom was overseeig the costructio of a structure kow as Tret s Fort, so that the Virgiia coloy would have a military presece at the Forks of the Ohio (Aderso 2000:4). Tret s Fort was erected i March of 4, but due to iadequate supplies ad with o hope of beig reiforced, it was surredered to Frech forces i April of 4 (Huter 960:43). After the Virgiias were oce agai ousted from their positio i the Ohio River Valley, the Frech bega the costructio of Fort Duquese, which they would use i a attempt to hold the Forks of the Ohio (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:-2). The Frech believed that by claimig cotrol of the Forks of the Ohio, the British would surreder their claim o the area. The British had o itetios of surrederig the Forks of the Ohio ad set George Washigto agai to wester frotier i 4 to reiforce the Virgiia Regimet statioed at Tret s Fort (Huter 960:3; Stotz 200:32; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:2). E route to Tret s Fort, Washigto was iformed by the retreatig Virgiias that the fort had falle ad that the Frech had commeced the costructio of a fort of their ow. Washigto decided to advace to the ew Ohio Compay storehouse at Redstoe ad to fortify it as a advaced base agaist the Frech (Huter 960:3). While proceedig towards Redstoe, the Half Kig of the Seeca atio (a ma amed Taaghrisso), iformed Geeral Washigto that a party of Frech soldiers had bee spotted close to Geeral Washigto s positio (Huter 960:4). Washigto s decisio to lauch a surprise attack o the Frech party proved to be a cataclysmic evet that would brig about the begiig of the Frech ad Idia War o a battlefield located i southwester Pesylvaia. 9

22 O the morig of May 28, Washigto ad his me surprised the Frech as they were stirrig from their camp. Both the Eglish ad Frech maitaied that it was the other side that opeed fire first, ad that they retured fire i order to protect themselves. Noetheless, whe the shootig had ceased, the Frech commader, Joseph Coulo de Villers de Jumoville more commoly referred to as Esig Jumoville was badly ijured. While Washigto was iterrogatig the esig, it became apparet that Jumoville had bee set as a act of diplomacy to demad Washigto ad his me depart from Frech territory. Before Washigto could fiish speakig to Jumoville through a iterpreter, the Half Kig Taaghrisso stepped up to Jumoville, raised his hatchet, ad smashed ope the esig s skull (Aderso 2006:4; Huter 960:4-). Fearig ad expectig the immediate retaliatio from the Frech, Washigto pulled his me from the Frech camp ad retured to a temporary camp at a place called the Great Meadows where Washigto ordered the erectio of a fort, a structure which was to become kow as Fort Necessity (Aderso 2006:49; Huter 960:; Stotz 200:2-22; Waddell ad Bomberger: 2). The Frech uder the commad of Esig Jumoville s brother Captai de Villiers arrived to avege the murder of Esig Jumoville o July 3, 4. What followed ext is kow as the Battle of Fort Necessity, i which Washigto ad his me were hopelessly outumbered by a combiatio of Frech, Caadias, ad Native Americas. The battle eded with Captai de Villiers offerig Washigto terms of surreder i additio to leavig behid two officers as Frech hostages. The terms stated that Washigto ad his me would be allowed to leave Fort Necessity alive with their persoal belogigs as well as their hoor if Washigto siged a article explaiig the coditios of the surreder. Washigto, whose me were exhausted, sick, wouded ad starvig, agreed despite beig uable to read the articles of 0

23 surreder, which had bee peed i Frech. By sigig the terms of surreder Washigto had uwittigly admitted to the murder of Esig Jumoville, a actio which by 8 th -cetury stadards was a act of war ad would later fuel the Frech to uofficially declare war o the coloies, although a formal declaratio of war would ot be made util 6. After Washigto ad his me left Fort Necessity to retur to Virgiia, the Frech destroyed Fort Necessity by fire ad retreated to Fort Duquese (Aderso 2000:6; Aderso 2006:49-2, 00; Babits ad Gadulla 203:0; Huter 960:-9; Stotz 200:2-23). While the British ad Frech Empires would ot formally declare war util May of 6, triggerig the Seve Years War i Europe (Babits ad Gadulla 203: xviii), fightig commeced withi the America coloies the year followig Washigto s surreder to the Frech i 4. By, the Frech had completed four forts withi the boudaries of the coloy of Virgiia, which would later become part of Pesylvaia. I respose to the presece of these forts o the wester frotier, the provicial assemblies of Marylad, Pesylvaia, ad Virgiia ordered the erectio of forts, located west of the Alleghey Moutais, i a attempt to protect their boudaries ad the civilias who resided i the area. Accordig to Louis Waddell, Marylad costructed the least umber of forts as the coloy oly eeded to protect roughly twety miles of border (996:80). Pesylvaia ad Virgiia were forced to erect umerous forts due to the expase of their frotier boudaries Pesylvaia with 20 miles of frotier ad Virgiia with 300 miles (Waddell 996:8). For the coloy of Pesylvaia, the eed to build forts was a harsh reality as the Frech ad their Native America allies, the Delawares ad Seeca, bega raidig the udefeded wester frotier (Stotz 200:3). Prior to, the assembly of Pesylvaia had doe little to defed its wester boudary as the Kig of Eglad had officially decided that the valley of the Ohio was i the

24 wester part of the Coloy of Virgiia ad determied the evets traspirig at the Forks of the Ohio to be Virgiia s cocer (Albert 96:9). Whe the coflict betwee Virgiia ad the Frech spilled oto Pesylvaia s frotier, actio was take to fortify the frotier (Waddell 996:8-86). At this time the coloy of Pesylvaia, primarily due to its Quaker foudatio, lacked substatial military structures (Huter 960:68). I, govermet officials i Eglad, William Augustus ad William Pitt, ad the Pesylvaia assembly agreed that a attempt must be made to take Fort Duquese (Aderso 2000: 86). The ma selected to lead this campaig agaist Fort Duquese was Geeral Edward Braddock, who arrived i America i March of. Braddock was to march from Fort Cumberlad, Marylad to Fort Duquese, rout the Frech from their positio, ad establish British cotrol of the Forks of the Ohio (Aderso 2006:6). Braddock left Fort Cumberlad o May 29, accompaied by George Washigto ad a detachmet comprised of British regulars ad coloial militia (Aderso 2006:69). Alog the way from Fort Cumberlad to Fort Duquese, Braddock ad his forces created the first military road i the coloy of Pesylvaia, Braddock s Road (Huter 960:3; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:0-). Upo their approach to Fort Duquese, the Braddock expeditio was ambushed by Frech forces that had received advaced warig of their approach. This battle, sometimes referred to as the Battle of the Moogahela, took place o July 9,, ad eded with a Frech victory whe Braddock was mortally wouded ad Washigto ordered the retreat (Albert 96:4-; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:4). After Braddock was defeated, ad the remats of his army retreated to Marylad ad Virgiia, the majority of Pesylvaia was left udefeded by the threat of both Frech ad Native America attacks. The wester frotier of Pesylvaia ad Virgiia soo erupted ito a 2

25 battlegroud promptig those who could afford to abado their homesteads to retreat to the east i vast umbers (Aderso 2000:08). [Native America] attacks bega i Pesylvaia soo after [Braddock s defeat] A uprepared society had to throw up defeses immediately (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:32). What happeed ext was a frezy of fort costructio withi the boudaries of coloial Pesylvaia. Forts were deliberately placed beyod the settlemet lie so that the war would be draw- as by a lodestoe- toward them, sparig the settled commuities from violece (Waddell 996:9-80). Additioally, some forts were situated i areas of great populatio desity; this tactic both facilitated the trasfer of supplies to the fort ad esured that areas which were heavily populated by Eglish settlers were protected. The first defeses withi Pesylvaia were costructed by voluteer militia forces (referred to as private forts withi this study) before Goveror Morris istructed Bejami Frakli ad Corad Weiser, with the assistace of Coloel William Clapham, to begi costructig the Provicial forts withi the coloy (Huter 960:0; Waddell 996:8-86). Of these early forts costructed by Pesylvaia s coloial govermet were Fort Augusta, erected i by Coloel William Clapham i what is moder-day Subury; Fort Lebao costructed i or 6 by Coloel Corad Weiser i the curret tow of Aubur; ad Fort Alle which was costructed based o a desig by Bejami Frakli i 6 ear the preset tow of Weissport (Buckalew 896:3; Huter 960: ; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:82, 8, 89). Durig this time, a series of six additioal forts were plaed, although oly four were erected. This lie of forts was ever completed due to the attack o Fort Graville ot log after it was costructed i which the etire garriso was killed (Huter 960:390-39). The completed forts became kow as the LSGP Lie, which was comprised of Fort Lyttleto, Fort Shirley, Fort Graville, ad Patterso s Fort (Figure 3) (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:). The 3

26 attack did ot go upuished ad i September of 6, Coloel Joh Armstrog led a detachmet of me to the Delaware village at Kittaig, which resulted i umerous Native America casualties ad the abadomet of Kittaig (Huter 960:30; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:24). Figure 3. The LSGP Lie with Fort Lyttleto i the lower left had corer ad Fort Shirley located just above to the right followed by Fort Graville ad what would later become Patterso s Fort (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8-9). Through the remaider of through the first half of 8, life o the Pesylvaia frotier cosisted of a series of egagemets betwee settlers ad the coloial army agaist the Frech, the Caadias, ad a combiatio of Seeca ad Delaware Native Americas. While there were o major campaigs durig this time withi the coloy of Pesylvaia, the Frech ad Idia War was gaiig mometum outside the frotiers of Marylad, Pesylvaia, ad 4

27 Virgiia. Durig, three simultaeous campaigs were waged agaist the Frech Fort Niagara o Lake Otario, Fort Sait Frédéric o Lake Champlai, ad the Frech forts o the Chigecto Isthmus i Nova Scotia, icludig Fort Beauséjour, (Aderso 2006:4). Of these campaigs, oly the British attack agaist Fort Beauséjour was successful with the Frech surrederig to Lieuteat-Coloel Robert Mockto ad the fort becomig Fort Cumberlad (Bru 203:4-; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:33). For the British the campaigs of 6 bega with a tale of tragedy as the garriso of Fort Bull was attacked by Frech forces o March 2 th i what was to become kow as the Massacre at Fort Bull (Aderso 2000:3). Soo after the icidet at Fort Bull, the commad of the British forces withi America was take away from Major Geeral Shirley ad was give to the Earl of Loudou, Joh Campbell (Aderso 2000:3). Later i the year the British Fort Otario fell to Frech forces (Aderso 2000:0, 3-4). The British campaigs of did ot improve from those of 6. A major blow was dealt to the British durig this year i the loss of Fort William Hery i August (Aderso 2000:8-86, 9-98). I, the British army made a usuccessful attempt at the fortress of Louisbourg located i Nova Scotia (Babits ad Gadulla 203: xviii; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004: 63-64). The year of 8, however, saw a shift i favor of the British ad bega with aother chage i the commad. O March 0, 8, Secretary of State William Pitt recalled Lord Loudou as the commader of the British forces withi America ad replaced him with Major Geeral James Abercromby (Aderso 2006:20). It must be oted here that evets i Europe played a role i this chage of evets withi America. Most otable of these was the success of the aval blockade i the Atlatic Ocea by the British Royal Navy, which preveted the Frech from supplyig its America coloies i New Frace (Aderso 2000:23; Aderso 2006:30-

28 3). The blockade preveted troops statioed withi New Frace from receivig much eeded ratios after cosecutive years of harvest failures i 6 ad (Aderso 2006:3). Aother victory that had bee three years i the makig also took place i 8: the British defeat of the Frech Fort Duquese. Durig this time, Fort Duquese remaied a lethal threat to the Pesylvaia ad Virgiia backcoutry so log as [Native America ad Frech] warriors could lauch raids from it so a pla was devised to take fort i two steps. The first step was to cut the fort off from the supply lie spaig from Lake Otario through the Fort Rivière aux Boeuf ad dow ito the Forks of the Ohio. The secod step was to attack the fort oce supplies were low (Aderso 2006:26). The systematic attacks of the supply lie coupled with the successful blockade by the British Royal Navy agaist the Frech would weake the Frech forces at Fort Duquese. The British victory at Fort Froteac by Major Geeral Joh Bradstreet was the first blow to the Frech lie of commuicatio to weake Fort Duquese (Aderso 2000:262; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:82-83). The ma that led the expeditio agaist Fort Duquese was Brigadier Geeral Joh Forbes, ad his expeditio bega i May 8. Uder commad of Lieuteat Coloel Hery Bouquet, a small detachmet departed Philadelphia to cut a ew military road, called Forbes s Road, to replace the road created by Geeral Braddock. This path followed the Native America pathway kow as the Raystow Path (or the Old Traders Path) from Paxtag (moder-day Harrisburg) to the Forks of the Ohio (Figure 4) (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:38; Wallace 993:42-43). [I]t was the pla of Forbes to push o by slow stages, establishig fortified magazies [forts] as he wet, ad at last, whe withi easy distace of the fort to advace upo it with all his force (Albert 96:80). 6

29 Figure 4. Braddock s Road i relatio to Forbes Road. Harris Ferry was sometimes referred to as Paxtag ad is moder-day Harrisburg (Waddell ad Bomberger 996:42). The first fort built alog Forbes Road was Fort Bedford, which was costructed i Jue of 8 by Hery Bouquet to serve as a supply camp alog Forbes Road, ad was the locatio where Forbes massed his six thousad plus strog army of British Regulars, Cotietals, Native Americas, ad Royal Americas; before pushig over the Alleghey Moutais ad ito the cotested Ohio coutry (Babits ad Gadulla 203: xix; Keedy 2004:). I early September 8, Bouquet ad his me reached the Loyalhaa River ad there costructed Fort Ligoier, sometimes referred to as the Fort at Loyalhaa or Fort Pittsborough (Stotz 200:20). While the detachmets uder the commad of Bouquet were awaitig the arrival of Geeral Forbes, a small party of soldiers uder the commad of Major Grat sought to attack the Frech ad claim Fort Duquese for Geeral Forbes. This expeditio met with failure (Albert 96:96-9; Dahliger 922:6; Grimm 90:0). I retaliatio for Grat s attack, a Frech detachmet of 600 me lauched a usuccessful attack o Fort Ligoier (Grimm 90:0). The garriso statioed at Fort Duquese realized that they were o match for Forbes force, which bega marchig for Fort Duquese i mid-november 8. The garriso mied

30 ad bured the fort ad abadoed it without a show of defese o November 24, 8 (Aderso 2006:-2; Stotz 200:8). Forbes ad his army arrived at the ruis of Fort Duquese o November 2, 8 (Aderso ). Costructio bega o Fort Pitt immediately, but due to the late seaso, a temporary fortificatio kow as Fort Mercer was created to house the me ecessary to build Fort Pitt (Albert 96:0). Fort Pitt was costructed by Geeral Stawix from August 9 through 6 (Albert 96:04, 06; Dahliger 922:3, 6). But the great fortress erected for the maiteace of Eglish supremacy proved uecessary. Log before it was completed Frech arms everywhere i America had met with defeat at the hads of the Eglish (Dahliger 922:8). The year 9 was a victorious year for the British forces withi the America coloies. The British claimed Forts Niagara, Carillo, Sait Frédéric i additio to the surreder of the city of Quebec (Aderso 2000:344, 36; Aderso 2006:88-89, 9; Babits ad Gadulla 203: xix). I 60, the British also bega to fight i the souther coloies agaist the Cherokee Natio. Discotet with the British had bee icreasig amog the Cherokee which culmiated i the loss of Fort Loudou of Teessee ad a legthy siege of Fort Price (Babits ad Gadulla 203:-8; Williams 998:9-0, 0). Despite these losses, the British had two strategic victories durig 60, which would lead to the ed of the Frech ad Idia War. The first of these evets was the surreder of the city of Motreal to Geerals James Murray, William Havilad ad Amherst (Aderso 2000:39, 40). Geeral Amherst orgaized the terms of surreder for the city of Motreal ad stipulated that the coloy of New Frace must also surreder (Aderso 2000:40). These terms were agreed to by Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil de Cavagial, Marquis de Vaudreuil ad commader of New Frace (Aderso 2000:40). As part of this surreder, the British obtaied possessio of Frech posts located throughout the 8

31 America coloy ad what had bee New Frace, icludig the Frech stroghold of Detroit (Coway ad Jamros 200:). With the surreder of Motreal ad the coloy of New Frace, the Frech ad Idia War eded i the New World ad there was relative peace for the coloists, but the fightig cotiued i Europe. O Jauary 4, 62, the Spaish Empire etered the Seve Years War o behalf of the Frech, ad Eglad quickly declared war o Spai (Aderso 2006:222). The result, for Spai, was a sheer disaster. Charles III ad his advisers had gambled that throwig Spai s weight ito the balace alogside Frace would iduce Britai to make peace but they were sadly mistake (Aderso 2006: ). I August, the British took cotrol of the Spaish settlemet of Havaa i Cuba, which prompted the Spaish to push for peace (Aderso 2006:223). O February 0, 63, the British, Frech ad Spaish Empires siged the Treaty of Paris, which formally eded the Frech ad Idia War (Aderso 2000:0). Aother treaty, that of Hubertusburg, siged by the Prussia ad Austria Empires as well as the Saxo Kigdom was siged o February, 63 officially eded the Seve Years War i Europe. Potiac s War Peace did ot last log withi the America coloies as aother coflict soo erupted withi the wester frotier. Potiac s War bega at Fort Detroit o May 9, 63 but the tesios ad hard feeligs that led to this coflict dated back to the Frech ad Idia War (Aderso 2006:23). After the British gaied cotrol of the Forks of the Ohio, the Native Americas had bee told by Coloel Hery Bouquet that the British had o desire to use their lad but istead sought to trade with the Ohio tribes (Parmeter 99:620). The Treaty of Easto, siged i October of 8, betwee Pesylvaia officials ad Native America tribes established a 9

32 boudary lie withi Pesylvaia (Parmeter 99:620). The Treaty of Easto was to provide immuity from future British attacks, ad [to serve as] a pledge to take the [Native Americas] by the hads ad lead them a safe distace from the Frech, which the Native Americas iterpreted to mea that the Pesylvaia govermet would sustai their well-beig (Parmeter 99:620). Trade reforms made by Geeral Amherst i the fall of 6 also added fuel to the harsh feeligs of Native America leaders. Amherst suspeded the practice of distributig gifts to [Native America] allies, icludig the customary provisio of ammuitio ad the trade of rum ad other liquors was forbidde (Aderso 2006:233). Amherst believed that miimized iteractio with Native Americas decreased the potetial for difficulties i the future (Parmeter 99:623). Whe the trade relatios were chaged uder orders of Amherst, the Native Americas saw this as a act of betrayal because they saw gift-givig ad trade as a way of buildig ad stregtheig alliaces (Aderso 2006:23). As Native America chiefs bega icreasigly distrustig the British, those statioed o the wester frotier watched with apprehesio as the fragile alliace betwee the Native Americas ad the British deteriorated. William Johso, who was familiar with the easter tribes ad their beliefs, sought to speak with the Ohio tribes at Detroit i 6, but the coferece tured sour whe a fight developed betwee tribal leaders (Parmeter 99:62). The relatios were further tarished whe British settlers bega settlig o lads that the Native America s claimed as their ow. The Native Americas were further agered whe they did ot receive compesatio for the lad as was agreed upo i the Treaty of Easto (Parmeter 99:626). To the British Empire, the acts of the Native Americas were ot threateig ad as a result they did ot properly supply coloial armies statioed o the frotier. Coloial forces 20

33 were left to their ow resources ad faced a oppoet who was icreasigly hostile. The message of the Delaware prophet Neoli i 62 served as a tippig poit that guarateed war with the Ohio Native Americas. Neoli had a visio i which the Great Spirit admoished the acceptace of British goods that had offeded the covetioal way of life. Oly by learig to live without ay trade or coectio to the Europeas ad returig to their old practices of hutig ad supportig themselves from the lad could the Delaware, ad others re-create their traditioal culture (Parmeter 99:62). To Potiac of the Ottawa Natio, the prophecy of Neoli was a call for actio ad he called to actio the atios of the Ottawas, Potawatomies, ad Huros (Wyadots) to take make war agaist the British (Aderso 2000:38). Potiac ad his cofederatio attempted a attack o Fort Detroit i April of 63 but after two failed assaults they determied that a surprise attack o the garriso could allow them to take the fort. This attack marked the begiig of Potiac s War, May 9, 63, ad led to the killig of several members of the garriso ad the civilia populatio i what was to become a six-moth siege o the fort (Parmeter 99:62). The attack o Fort Detroit set off a chai reactio amog other Native America tribes that utilized [w]ell-coceived ruses ad deceptios, gufire from etreched positios, ad flamig arrows... over a spa of fiftee moths, which resulted i a umber of deaths, both Native America ad British (Parmeter 99:62-628). The remaider of the summer of 63 resulted i a umber of British losses. Fort Sadusky fell to Wyadot warriors o May 6, Fort St. Joseph (at moder Niles, Michiga) fell o May 2, Fort Miami ad Fort Ouiateo (ear Lafayette, Idiaa) both fell by Jue, ad o Jue 2 Fort Michilimackiac was take by Chippewa warriors uder the ruse of a game of lacrosse (Aderso 2000:38-39). By the middle of Jue, the fire of the rebellio was movig 2

34 closer towards the settled portios of the wester frotier. By Jue 2, the combied forces of the Seeca, Ottawas, ad Chippewas attacked Fort Niagara, Fort Pitt, Fort Veago, Fort LeBoeuf, ad Fort Presque Isle (Aderso 2000:40). Forts Ligoier ad Bedford were also attacked as the Native America forces of the Delaware ad Shawee moved eastward (Aderso 2000:40). The loss of these strategic fortificatios o the wester frotier led to the Kig of Eglad to sed additioal troops to quell the rebellio towards the ed of Jue (Grat 93:8). Fortuately for Amherst, the fortificatios that fuctioed as cetral distributio poits (Forts Detroit, Pitt, ad Niagara) all remaied i British hads icludig the largest magazies i the coloies (Aderso 2000:44). The fightig of the ext three years cosisted of Native Americas coductig surprise attacks o settlemets ad fortificatios with the British meetig their Native America adversaries with military force. The British also used aother method, which proved to be eve deadlier tha bullets ad gu powder: the itroductio of smallpox ito the Native America populatios through the distributio of blakets ad clothig that came from Aglo smallpox victims (Fe 2000:4; Parmeter 99:628). Evetually, the decidig factor to which side would emerge victorious was military power. While the remaider of 63 saw o British military campaigs, peace talks bega early i 64 betwee William Johso ad Native America leaders; ufortuately, the leaders who came to the peace talks were ot of the tribes that had declared war o the British (Parmeter 99:63). While Johso attempted peace talks, Geeral Amherst set Coloel Bradstreet ad Coloel Bouquet ito the wester frotier i a attempt to squelch Potiac s Rebellio. Bradstreet departed from Fort Niagara o August 6 with Bouquet leavig Fort Pitt o October 3rd (Parmeter 99: ). Both armies had bee charged with chastisig the Native 22

35 Americas ad attemptig to subdue them ito peace (Aderso 2000:68-69). The armies of Bradstreet ad Bouquet had also bee authorized to use force with the Native Americas ad were eve ordered to attack Native America settlemets (Aderso 2000:623-62). These attacks by Bradstreet ad Bouquet were potetially the cause of several peace talks, which bega early i 6. The first coferece occurred o April 29 where Neoli delivered a log speech reoucig his prior ativistic stace ad expressed his desire to be as oe people with the Eglish (Parmeter 99:63-636). Slowly, peace was made with other tribes ad evetually spread to Potiac himself who siged the Treaty of Oswego with George Crogha ad William Johso o July 2, 66 at Fort Otario edig Potiac s Rebellio (Aderso 2000:62; Parmeter 99: ). Yakee-Peamite War While the previous coflicts had affected the wester frotier, oe coflict, the Yakee- Peamite War, was waged betwee the coloists of Coecticut ad Pesylvaia withi the Wyomig Valley of Pesylvaia. This coflict was caused by both coloies claimig the Wyomig Valley as their property. Coecticut claimed the Wyomig Valley based o the Figureer of 662, which fixed Coecticut s wester boudary at the Pacific. Because that patet preceded the establishmet of Pesylvaia by early twety years, Coecticut argued that it had the right to settle the Wyomig Valley (Aderso 2000:29; Shimmell 90:2-3). Pesylvaia argued that the valley had bee give to William Pe by the Kig of Eglad (Ward 20:629). By 60 there were over 20 Coecticut settlemets withi the Wyomig Valley despite the British govermet statig that the claims of Coecticut were ot valid (Aderso 2000:30). 23

36 As axiety icreased betwee the Coecticutias ad Pesylvaias, the coloists also had a cause for cocer with the Native Americas who lived i the valleys of the North ad West Braches of the Susquehaa River. Whether through cocer over their fellow coloists or the Native Americas, ihabitats from both sides bega erectig fortificatios to protect themselves ad their property (Reyold 896:42; Shimmell 90:4). The Coecticut settlers costructed the majority of these fortificatios (a total of eight) with the first forts, Fort Durkee ad Pittsto Fort, beig completed by 69 (Grat 96:86; Reyolds 896:42, 446). The oly Pesylvaia fort withi the valley was Fort Wyomig (Reyolds 896:4). The majority of the forts withi the Wyomig Valley were completed after as the Revolutioary War slowly loomed o the America coloies. It is possible that fort costructio icreased durig this time as both the Coecticut Loyalists, who sympathized with the Tories, ad the Pesylvaias, who sympathized with the Patriots, ihabited the Wyomig Valley (Zeicher 938:309). The Yakee-Peamite War came to a head durig the Revolutioary War i mid-8 whe Coloel Zebulo Butler attempted to claim the Wyomig Valley for the Cotietal Army (Reyolds 896:4). At word of the advacemet of Coloel Butler s army, the Loyalists of the Wyomig Valley sought refuge withi Forty-Fort uder the commad of Major Joh Butler (Reyolds 896:44). Whe Major Butler refused to surreder his positio, the forces of Coloel Butler attacked Forty-Fort, which fell after a short battle, sedig the survivors to the other forts withi the valley (Reyolds 896:439-44). Oce Coloel Butler ad his me were iside Forty-Fort they robbed the settlers who were takig shelter withi before decimatig the valley, killig idividuals fleeig Forty-Fort, burig ad destroyig homes, ad drivig off livestock; this evet became kow as the Wyomig Massacre ad is recogized as the sigle 24

37 bloodiest Revolutioary egagemet o the Pesylvaia frotier (Ousterhout 99:336-33; Reyolds 896:442; Ward 20:63-632). I, a proclamatio from the Kig of Eglad made the Wyomig Valley a part of the coloy of Coecticut. However; i 82, the Cotietal Cogress reversed the Kig s decisio ad grated the Wyomig Valley to Pesylvaia (Ousterhout 99:343). Revolutioary War -83 With the British victories i the Frech ad Idia War ad Potiac s War, the America coloies were able to ejoy twelve years of peace from coflict aside from the occasioal skirmishes betwee Eglish settlers ad the cotiet s Native America populatio. This peace, however, was accompaied by a heavy price that left the British govermet ad its subjects strugglig to repay the debts caused by ie years of almost costat coflict. At the ed of the Seve Years War the Eglish Empire had a debt of 36,000,000 (Ward 20:6). I order to repay this debt the British govermet decided to use a traditioal method, imposig taxes o its subjects i a multitude of ways. The first of these ew taxes, the America Duties Act, referred to as the Sugar Act withi America, was passed by Parliamet o March 22, 64 ad imposed taxes o imported molasses ad other sugars (Aderso 2000:4). Secod, the Stamp Act of 6 required that reveue stamps be affixed to all papers i lawsuits, all commercial paper, bills of ladig, ship Figureers, probates of wills, surveys ad coveyaces of lad, leases, bills of sale as well as ewspapers, playig cards ad so o (Ward 20:). It was ot just the icrease i taxes that agitated the America coloists but a belief that Parliamet could ot legitimately tax [the coloists] as they were ot represeted i that body (Coway 203:43). Parliamet, however, believed that they had the right to tax Americas as they were 2

38 icluded i the British Empire i additio to the argumet that a part of the debt the Empire ow struggled to pay stemmed from keepig a army withi the coloies (Coway 203:42). I respose to these ew taxes, the coloies were the scee of umerous riots, particularly i the coloies of Massachusetts ad Virgiia (Aderso 2000:66-666). As a result of the Bosto riots the Bosto Massacre took place i 0 where several civilias were killed i retaliatio for the killig of two British soldiers. The Bosto Tea Party which took place i 3 was also a result of the Bosto riots (Coway 203:46-4) The Bosto Tea Party was the Bostoia respose to the Tea Act of 3 (Coway 203:48). As a result of the Bosto Tea Party, Parliamet passed the Bosto Port Act, which closed the Bosto Harbor util Bosto had reimbursed the East Idia Compay for the damaged tea (Coway 203:49; Ward 20:3-4). The Bosto Port Act did ot have the desired effect, as the America coloists pulled together ad helped Bosto. Massachusetts Goveror Gage, who had bee ordered to disarm those who had bee acquirig weapos, received word that the militia were storig illegal supplies i the tow of Cocord ad ordered Lieuteat Coloel Fracis Smith to destroy these muitios (Coway 203:; Ward 20:33-34). As a result, the Battles of Lexigto ad Cocord were fought o April 8 ad 9 which sparked the Revolutioary War (Ward 20:33-34). I a attempt to quell the developig rebellio, the British met Patriot forces at the ext battle of the war, the Battle of Buker Hill o July th, (Coway 203:-9). The America coloists were ow officially at war with Britai. The remaider of saw very little i the way of campaigs with a failed attempt by the Americas to take Fort St. Joh ad the city of Quebec i September (Ward 20:3-4; 88). I July of, the Cotietal Cogress preseted to Kig George III i July of, 26

39 which offered a possible compromise solutio: if Parliamet reouced its claims to tax America, the coloies would accept parliametary regulatio of their overseas trade. Whe Kig George III rejected this petitio, it became clear that the coflict would cotiue (Coway 203:6-62). O March, 6 British Geeral Howe ordered the British forces to evacuate the city of Bosto, which caused Washigto, fearig Howe s motives, to race to New York City (Ward 20:202). The armies of Washigto ad Corwallis met o August 2, 6 i the Battle of Log Islad, which resulted i a America defeat ad a full America retreat (Coway 203:69-0; Ward 20:26, 22). O September 6th, Washigto ad his me met the British agai at the Battle of Harlem Heights, which resulted i a America victory after Washigto divided his forces ad attacked the British o two sides (Ward 20:20-2). The followig moths saw several more battles as Washigto ad his me cotiued their fight for New York City. The Battle of Pelham resulted i a British victory with a America retreat ad the Battle of White Plais, which took place o October 9, 6, also resulted i a British victory ad America retreat (Ward 20:28, 260, 266). The Americas were additioally uable to defed ad hold Fort Washigto located ear North Castle Heights, which fell to the British soo after November 4, 6 (Ward 20:2). With these victories, the British bega to feel that victory must subsequetly be at had util Washigto s forces took the tows of Treto ad Priceto o December 26, 6 ad Jauary 3, (Coway 203:4; Ward 20:298, 30). Washigto s victories at Treto ad Priceto coupled with the Declaratio of Idepedece proved to the British ad other world powers that the America coloies were a ew polity capable of makig agreemets with other atios ad were able to defed (or capable of defedig) themselves (Coway 203:69). By, the Frech ad Spaish Empires bega 2

40 sedig aid to the Americas i the way of muitios ad moey but hesitated to provide more aid util it became clear that the America coloies would sever all ties with the British (Coway 203:6-). The campaig seaso bega i mid-july whe Howe ordered the majority of his army to evacuate New York ad set the army to the city of Philadelphia, just as Washigto expected (Coway 203:8). As Washigto prepared to battle the British for Philadelphia, he received aid from the Marquis de Lafayette, who came o his ow accord to assist the America coloists (Ward 20:334). The Philadelphia Campaig bega with the Battle of Bradywie, which took place o September 9,, that resulted i a British victory (Coway 203:8; Ward 20:340, 33). The British wo aother victory o October 4th at the Battle of Germatow located just orth of Philadelphia (Ward 20:36, 3). With the ed of the Battle of Germatow, the British foud themselves cut off from their supplies ad determied that they eeded to ope up the Delaware River, which had bee fortified by the Americas, to allow supply ships to reach their army at Philadelphia (Coway 203:8). The attempt to ope the Delaware bega o October 0, whe British warships opeed fire o Fort Miffli located o Mud Islad just outside of Philadelphia (Dorwart 998:4-48). The garriso statioed at Fort Miffli withstood a full moth of the British siege before they were forced to evacuate the fort due to lack of able-bodied me ad the substatial damages that the fort had sustaied (Dorwart 998:48; Coway 203:9). Not log after the fall of Fort Miffli, Fort Mercer i New Jersey fell, givig the British the cotrol of the Delaware River (Dorwart 998:2; Ward 20:3). O October 9 Howe withdrew his troops from Germatow ad cocetrated his whole force i Philadelphia where he costructed several redoubts from the Upper Ferry o Pesylvaia s Schuylkill River to the shore of the Delaware 28

41 (Ward 20:39). Soo afterward Washigto retired with his me to their camp at Valley Forge for the witer of -8 (Ward 20:38-383). While Geeral Washigto ad Geeral Howe were egaged i the Philadelphia Campaig, other campaigs were beig coducted i New York. Geeral Burgoye s troops had seized the America cotrolled Fort Ticoderoga i early July, after it had bee abadoed by Geeral Arthur St. Clair (Coway 203:80). O September 9,, Burgoye ad his army met the combied forces of Geerals Horatio Gates ad Beedict Arold at the Battle of Freema s Farm, which was a British victory (Coway 203:80-8; Ward 20:-2). O October,, the armies egaged agai at the Battle of Bemis Heights, which eded with a America victory with Geeral Burgoye surrederig to the America army (Coway 203:84; Ward 20:23, 2, 3). Further America losses durig the Philadelphia Campaig icluded the loss of Forts Stawix, Clito ad Motgomery (Ward 20:484, -6). Not log after the ews of Burgoye s surreder reached Europe, the Frech siged a treaty with the Americas ad officially etered the war o behalf of the America coloists i February of 8 (Coway 203:9, 86). Regardless of the treaty, the war cotiued i the America coloies with the British pullig out of Philadelphia i Jue of 8 after Geeral Clito, who at this time had take over for Geeral Howe, decided to tur the military campaigs from the orth to the south (Coway 203:89, 9). As Clito departed Philadelphia, Washigto egaged him ear Momouth Court House o Jue 28, 8 with both sides claimig a victory (Ward 20:6, 8). Soo afterward Frech warships arrived off the coast of Newport, Rhode Islad uder the commad of Comte d Estaig (Coway 203:93; Ward 20:8). By November, the Americas ad British took to their witer camps ad fightig did ot resume util early summer of 9 (Coway 203:93; Ward 20:9-96). 29

42 Chages followed i 9 for both armies. Washigto received word that attacks o the frotier of the rebel coloies, ivolvig mixed forces of [Native Americas] ad loyalists, caused much misery i Pesylvaia ad New York, but it was ot util the ext year that Washigto was willig to detach part of his army to couter these icursios (Coway 203:94; Shimmell 90:4). Whe Washigto leared of the coditios o the frotier, he ordered Fort Armstrog to be costructed i a attempt to protect civilias ad to assist the garrisos that had bee tasked with protectig the frotier from British raids based out of Fort Detroit (Albert 96:4; Coway ad Jamros 200:). O the wester frotier, a attempt was made i 8 by Geeral Lachla McItosh to take the British stroghold at Detroit, which led to the erectio of Fort McItosh o Pesylvaia s wester friges ad the failure of McItosh s expeditio (Agew 899:; Graham 932:93, 04-0). The frotier coloies costructed ew forts ad repaired old forts to protect themselves from the British ad Native Americas with roughly 00 ew forts erected withi Pesylvaia aloe (Shimmell 90:- ). It should be oted, however, that the coloial settlers were ot the oly peoples beig attacked durig this time. Native wome ad childre experieced equally brutal treatmet at the hads of America troops (Coway 203:2). Upo receivig word that frotier settlemets i Pesylvaia ad New York were beig raided by the Native America allies of the British, Washigto set Geeral Joh Sulliva to limit Native America violece agaist the coloists (Ward 20: ). By October, 9, Sulliva s expeditio had achieved its goal (Ward 20:644). Perhaps the most sigificat chage for the British Empire was the etrace of Spai ito the war i Jue of 9 o behalf of the Frech ad the Americas (Coway 203:9). With the 30

43 Spaish o their side, the Frech ad Americas tured their focus to the souther coloies where the remaider of the war would be carried out. I Jue of 6 the British attempted a siege of Sulliva s Islad which resulted i failure ad allowed the Patriots to retai cotrol of the city of key city Charlesto (Ward 20:64, 6). After the failed attempt at Sulliva s Islad the British did ot attempt further military operatios i the south util after 8 (Ward 20:69). I 80 the British attempted to take Charlesto ad ulike before, were successful (Ward 20:699, 03). Other Souther campaigs icluded the attempted siege of British Savaah by Frech forces which resulted i a British victory i 9 (Ward 20:688, 649). The America forces were also defeated at the Battle of Camde o August 6, 80 but were able to defeat the British at the Battle of Cowpes o Jauary, 8 (Coway 203: 0; Ward 20:2, 3,, 6-62). While fightig cotiued withi the coloies of South ad North Carolia, Corwallis had made his way to Virgiia. Washigto ad his Frech forces arrived i Virgiia o August 2, 8 (Ward 20:882). The British met the Americas ad their Frech allies at the Battle of Yorktow o October 6, 8 which resulted i a America victory as Geeral Corwallis surredered o October 9, 83 (Coway 203:3). Fightig with the America coloies largely dissipated soo after Corwallis surreder. Oe exceptio to the ceasefire was the uexpected Frech attack o forts belogig to the British Hudso s Bay Compay i August of 82 (Coway 203:6). Aother exceptio was the 82 attack o the Pesylvaia settlemet of Haa s Tow where the combied forces of Caadias, British ad Seeca bured the tow ad killed domestic aimals before killig ad capturig a umber of the tow s ihabitats (Carlisle 200:; Fryma ad Eddis 984:; Richardso 200:2). 3

44 Peace was fialized o September 3, 83 with a treaty siged by the Americas, Frech, Spaish, ad British (Coway 203:49). The result was a idepedet ad free America atio with little chage for the other coutries. Frace etered the war o behalf of the Americas hopig to regai lost tradig positios take from them at the ed of the Seve Years War ad i a attempt to gai territory i British Idia. While the Frech did ot obtai ew tradig positios i Idia, they were able to secure prewar tradig statios. Spai regaied Florida ad Miorca but was deied Gibraltar (Coway 203:49). This Treaty of Paris eded the last major war i the Americas of the 8 th cetury but would ot be the last coflict that the Americas would fight durig the cetury. Frotier War 90-9 After the Revolutioary War, America was recogized as a sovereig atio by Europea powers ad Native America atios alike. It was ow time for the Americas to prove that they were capable of leadig their ow coutry ad defedig their borders. This task was complicated by two etities: the British ad the Native Americas from the Ohio River valley. After the sigig of the Treaty of Paris i 83, peace may have bee declared betwee America ad the British, but the relatioship betwee the two was aythig but cordial. While the war had eded, the British still maitaied posts ito the 90s (Gaff 2004: xvii). The British Idia Departmet had garrisos at Fort Detroit ad Fort Miami i the Ohio Valley, a valley the Americas believed they had wo the rights to after the British were defeated i the previous war (Horsma 962:269, 280). The Americas ad the tribes of the Ohio Valley, who had British backig, both sought to cotrol the Ohio Valley; either would cocede to the other or would admit to a compromise, which sparked the Frotier War, the first war the America atio would fight o its ow 32

45 (Horsma 962:269). The Native Americas, the Shawees ad Delawares, argued that the territory west of the Ohio River beloged to them based o the Proclamatio Lie created by the Royal Proclamatio of October 63 (Figure ) (Coway 203:39; Stillé 893:36-3). The Americas argued they had the right to occupy the lads that the British had occupied prior to the Revolutioary War (Gaff 2004: xvii). Figure. The Proclamatio Lie i North America i 63. This lie was meat to temporarily stop the westward expasio of the British coloies (Coway 203:39). I 90, Presidet Washigto set Brigadier Geeral Josiah Hamar to the Ohio Valley i a attempt to quell the Native Americas. Whe Hamar failed, Geeral Arthur St. Clair was set i 9 to attempt the same task ad likewise failed (Gaff 2004:3; Horsma 962:269; Stillé 893:38-39). After the latter catastrophe the Uited States udertook the preparatio of a 33

46 more effective expeditio uder [Major Geeral] Athoy Waye ad at the same time dispatched peace embassies ito the Northwest to gai time for America military preparatios (Horsma 962:269). Waye had trouble amassig a army as the settlers o the frotier were gripped by fear ad were hesitat to leave their families (Gaff 2004:0). The me recruited were ot skilled soldiers ad required extesive military traiig (Gaff 2004:38; Stillé 893:323). Waye wasted o time i preparig to take the Ohio Valley for America ad by Jue of 92, he had arrived i Pittsburgh to fill the raks of his army (Stillé 893:322). Waye based his army, referred to as his Legio, i the ewly costructed Fort Fayette (also kow as Fort Lafayette), which had bee costructed i May of 92 to replace the decrepit remais of Fort Pitt (Albert 96:60; Gaff 2004:8, 64). Waye realized that the oly way to claim what is ow Ohio for America settlemet was to cofrot the Native Americas o the frotier ad defeat them. I preparatio of defeatig the frotier Native Americas, Geeral Waye moved his camp of roughly fiftee hudred me to a locatio o the Ohio River roughly 2 miles from Pittsburg ear the moder tow of Bade (Gaff 2004:69, 4; Riley ad Johso 2004:, 2-3; Stillé 893:324). This ew camp was called Legioville, or Legio Ville, where the America Legio would camp ad trai util May of 93 whe he moved the force to Fort Washigto ear what is ow Ciciati (Gaff 2004:4, 26; Riley ad Johso 2004:, 3; Stillé 893:32). Oce at Fort Washigto the troops waited impatietly for the result of a attempt at peace by the Washigto admiistratio (Gaff 2004:44). Whe the peace treaties failed, Waye was ordered to march further ito the Ohio Valley i aother attempt to subdue the Native Americas by force (Stillé 893:328). Waye s legio marched westward o October, 93 ad created Fort Greeville, located i moder-day Greeville, Ohio, to serve as a base camp for his wester operatios (Gaff 34

47 2004:, ). I 94, Waye created aother fort, Fort Recovery, where he ad his me spet the witer (Gaff 2004:96). This witer was spet expectig a attack from the Native Americas as word has reached the Legio that Native Americas were amassig at the juctio of the Maumee ad Auglaize rivers (Gaff 2004:96; Horsma 962:22, 2). Little kow to Waye, British Idia Departmet represetative Alexader McKee was urgig the Native Americas to secure supply lies withi the Ohio frotier but his advice was ot heeded ad the Native Americas bega plaig a direct attack o Fort Recovery durig the witer of (Horsma 962:26). The attack o Fort Recovery took place o Jue 29 through 30, 94 with the Native Americas failig to iflict damage o soldiers movig with a supply lie who were i tur were able to drive back the Native Americas before a attempt was made o Fort Recovery (Gaff 2004: ; Stillé 893:330). I July of 94, Waye called the remaider of his Legio up from Fort Greeville ad o August 3, he made a fial attempt at peace with the Native Americas (Horsma 29-28). Whe these attempts at peace failed, Waye ad his me marched up the Maumee River to Falle Timbers (Gaff 2004:299). O August 20, 94, Waye s forces clashed with Native America forces i the Battle of Falle Timbers, which resulted with the Native Americas i a full retreat to Fort Miami where they were deied etry ad were forced to retreat to the Auglaize River (Horsma 962:282; Stillé 893:33). Whe the Native Americas were defeated at the Battle of Falle Timbers, coflict betwee Native Americas ad soldiers all but ceased despite the British Idia Departmet s attempts to stimulate the tribesme to tempt the fortue of war oce more (Gaff 2004:33; Stillé 893:338). I the witer of 94-9, some of the tribes that had baded together at the Auglaize River met with Geeral Waye at Fort Greeville to accept the peace treaty that he had offered 3

48 i August (Horsma 962:286). Official peace was declared o July of 9 betwee the Native Americas ad the Americas, which resulted i the Americas obtaiig much of what is ow easter ad souther Ohio, as well as a strip of preset-day Idiaa (Horsma 962:289; Stillé 893:338). Geeral Waye had obtaied peace at last, ad the frotier war with the Native Americas eded temporarily. History of Forts ad 8 th Cetury Fortificatio Forts have a log history withi North America. Forts are ot structures belogig to the past but are still used today. People have bee costructig forts withi the Uited States for ceturies; oe of the oldest kow forts Fort Carolie of the Frech Empire i southeaster Georgia dates to 64 (Sciece Daily 204). Other early forts withi the Uited States iclude Fort Sa Jua of the Spaish Empire, datig to 6, ad the fort at Jamestow of the British Empire i 60 (Beck et. al. 2006:6; Korwolf ad Korwolf 2002:3). Withi the state of Pesylvaia, Native America atios, such as the Moogahela Native Americas of the th through th ceturies, were also kow to use fortificatios to protect their villages (Mitchell 20:). I order to uderstad how these North America forts, aside from those forts associated with Native America costructio, were created, oe must first look to the seveteeth cetury Frech egieer Sébastie LePrestre de Vauba, who durig his brief time as a soldier oticed flaws i the fortificatio system used by his coutryme, flaws he spet the remaider of his life correctig as a military egieer (Vauba 968: vii-viii). Vauba argued that the castles of medieval Europe were ieffective ad devised a method of fortificatio costructio that was based o geometry (Vauba 693a:). Usig Vauba s style of fortificatio, egieers were istructed to costruct forts based o a series of measuremets ad geometrical calculatios 36

49 (Figures 6 ad ) to create what is today kow as a star fort (Figure 8). This geometry-based fortificatio system was fouded o the otio that Geometry, geerally take, is the Mother of several other Arts ad Scieces, which could be used to measure heights, distaces of plais, solids ad cocaves i additio to other thigs (Vauba 693a:36). Accordig to Vauba, usig geometry to create forts was ot oly logical but coicided with the art of costructig all maer of military fortificatio structures (Vauba 693b:). Figure 6. Example of a measuremet table created by Vauba to calculate geometrical formulas to costruct a star fort. Each side should be measured ad based off the previous side (Muller 4:28). Figure. Example of aother measuremet table created by Vauba to be used by military egieers for fort costructio (Muller 4:3). 3

50 Figure 8. Fort Loudou represets the star fort style created by Vauba (Babits ad Gadulla 203:03) Vauba s method of fort costructio divided fortificatios ito two types: regular or irregular. Regular fortificatio is where all sides ad agles are equal to oe aother, while irregular fortificatio is where the sides ad agles are ot equal or uiform to oe aother (Vauba 693b:4). See Figure 8 for a example of a regular fortificatio, ad Figure 9 for a example of a irregular fortificatio. Irregular fortificatios are further broke dow ito durable or temporary. Durable irregular fortificatios are those that were built to cotiue for prologed periods of time while temporary irregular fortificatios were ot meat to stad loger tha several moths (Vauba 693b:4). Additioal types of forts accordig to Vauba iclude half redoubt, star-square, star-petago, star-hexago, triagle of half bastio, square of a half bastio, square with bastios, petago with etire bastios, ad half-hexago with etire bastios (Vauba 693b:90-9). 38

51 Figure 9. Fort Bedford, Pesylvaia is a example of a irregular durable fortificatio (MHS 200a). Vauba ot oly perfected the way forts were costructed through the publicatio of several documets that detailed his method, he additioally published aother work that taught military egieers the art of siegecraft. Siegecraft i the 8 th cetury was also cosidered to be a art form that was govered by the limitatios o aggressio imposed by such a structure of political values; i other words, there was a set ad ackowledged system of siegecraft that military egieer ad officers alike were expected to maitai (Vauba 968:3). For example, durig the takig of Fort William Hery located i New York i, Frech Geeral Louis- Joseph de Motcalm formally opeed the siege by sedig i a messeger uder a flag of truce, i accord with Europea custom, bearig a demad for the garriso s surreder. I keepig with custom, Lieuteat-Coloel George Moro refused to surreder to Motcalm, ad the siege bega (Aderso 2000:9-92). By these getlemaly rules of war, the Europea armies did ot seek to domiate their oppoet completely but rather to strike, obtai, ad hold strategic locatios (Vauba 968:3). This led to what has bee referred to as a war of positio, where armies would costruct 39

52 fortificatios that would ot oly offer protectio but would be able to repel a eemy attack i a attempt to maitai a strategic positio (Vauba 968:2). Forts were costructed with defese i mid where [d]efece refers to techiques ad actios, both active ad passive, to repel attack, to protect people ad property, to hold territory, ad to miimize damage by the attacker (Levy 984:223). Warfare ad fortificatio durig this time were highly iflueced by geometry, where the placemet of troops ad forts were situated geographically i relatio to strategic locatios with military operatios focusig o fortificatio structures (Levy 984:23). The 8 th cetury was a age where the takig or loss of a fort/fortress could provide a army with the cotrol or loss of a strategic geographical area (Vauba 968:2). Therefore, military egieers were taught to costruct forts accordig to geometry ad were likewise taught to udertake siegecraft accordig to geometry. Vauba s style of siegecraft cosisted of diggig a series of treches up to the fort uder siege, which would allow the attackig armies cover i additio to providig the ability to brig heavy artillery to the walls of the structure (Figure 0) (Vauba 968). Vauba taught that the begiigs of a siege should be coducted i secrecy ad that a great deal of itelligece should be acquired about the fort ad the surroudig area (Vauba 968:22-24). He explais that itelligece about the fort should be acquired from surveillace, from spies, ad from captured prisoers, ad that the art of siegecraft should be coducted at ight, guided by fires, so that the eemy will ot have the advatage of seeig their attackers (Vauba 968:34-36). Vauba was cofidet that he had developed the perfect techique for takig dow the perfect fort (Vauba 968:93). 40

53 Figure 0. Example of the trechig style of siegecraft developed by Vauba which was widely used durig the 8th cetury (Vauba 968:66). The British method of fortificatio, which the America coloists utilized throughout the 8 th cetury as British subjects, was created by expadig o the Frech method. Muller describes desigig a fort i the followig maer: Iscribe i a circle of a polygo of as may sides as the fortificatio is desiged to have frots; let AB be oe of the sides of half a [h]exago, which bisect by the perpedicular. CD; divide half AC of it ito ie equal parts, ad oe of these ito te others; the these divisios will serve as a scale to costruct all the parts of the fortificatio, ad each of them is supposed to be a toise of fathom (roughly six feet or.9 meters) ad therefore, the whole side of AB is supposed to be 80 toises (Muller 4:24). Like Vauba, Muller also published a maual o the costructio of fortificatios durig the mid-to-late 8 th cetury, which was taught to military egieers i Eglad ad America. This maual icluded a step by step guide o how to measure ad costruct the various pieces of a fort ad eve icluded istructio o how to costruct the glacis, a idea which was borrowed 4

54 from the publicatios by Vauba (Figure ) (Muller 4:4-43). Oe differece betwee Vauba s style of fortificatio ad the style developed by Muller is that Muller favored larger Figure. Cross Sectio of Simple Fortificatio (Adapted from Vauba 968:). fortificatios. There are several other advatages i large fortified places, which caot possibly be had i small oes; as the sick ad wouded may be lodged i a quarter remote from attack, where they are pretty secure from the besiegers shells ad caoshot (Muller 4:3-4). Muller also argues that military egieers should always attempt first to costruct a regular fortificatio ad resort to costructig a irregular fortificatio oly after first attemptig a regular (Muller 4:-6). Ulike Vauba, Muller states that a square fort is to be favored if the locatio has ay importace to military operatios (Muller 4:20). I a attempt to best the Frech ad their superior ilad fortificatios, the British army, with the help of the coloial militias ad cocered private citizes, bega to costruct fortificatios o the coloial frotier i order to prevet the Frech from reachig areas that were heavily settled (Waddell 996:84). By 6, both the provicial assemblies of Virgiia ad Pesylvaia had ordered the costructio of a chai of forts icludig private forts, couty militia forts, ad provicial forts (Waddell 996:8). As metioed previously, the respose i Pesylvaia was the LSPG Lie bolstered by forts costructed by private citizes. This three- 42

55 tiered system of fortificatios would evetually be supported ad later replaced by the larger forts of Forts Augusta, Bedford, Ligoier, ad Pitt that were costructed by British egieers. The arts of fortificatio ad siegecraft were perfected by the Frech i the last half of the th cetury; by the 8 th cetury this effective system had spread throughout the majority of Europe ad was soo beig implemeted by the Eglish ad Frech Empires withi the North America coloies before the coloists of America utilized the system to obtai their idepedece. Withi North America, the system of fortificatio gradually chaged based o the belief of Vauba that defesive works must suit local coditios. The ackowledgemet that geeral pricipals must be adapted to local coditios was ofte related to a distictio betwee regular fortificatio, which represeted the applicatio of ideal priciples at the draftsma s table, ad irregular fortificatio, which adapted the ideal priciples to real terrai (Babits ad Gadulla 203:2). As the terrai chaged throughout North America so too did the style of fortificatio, with each Empire slowly adaptig their fortificatio practices to meet the eeds of the New World. These fortificatios offer glimpses ito the Empires method of fortificatio ad ca be used throughout North America to study the cultures of the 8 th cetury. 43

56 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY The primary goal of this thesis was to create a typology of the forts cotaied withi Pesylvaia datig from 4 through 90. Withi the field of archaeology, a typology is a tool that is used to order artifacts ito groups or classes o the basis of their similarity (Bailey 994:). Writig i 94, James Ford explaied typologies as a tool desiged for the recostructio of culture history i time ad space (Adams ad Adams 99:9). Typologies are typically developed out of a researcher's attempt to solve research questios ad iterpret a site i a attempt to uderstad a site through the artifacts (Carter 202; Shakel ad Little 992:-6). A key compoet of a typology is the types, or classificatios, that are created i order to study artifacts ad culture. A type is a body of ideas about the ature ad characteristics of a group of etities, which make it possible for [archaeologists] to thik of them i a collective way ad uder a collective label with every type beig a sortig category i which it ca be further sorted (Adams ad Adams 99:30, 32). Accordig to Carter (202), types should be grouped accordig to their qualitative, quatitative, morphological, formal, techological, ad fuctioal attributes, which ca be placed ito four differet categories or groups for purposes of cosistecy. These groups may be used sigularly or i a combiatio: descriptive types, chroological types, fuctioal types, ad stylistic types (Carter 202). Accordig to Adams ad Adams (99), types withi a typology are additioally created based o two perspectives: the etic or the emic. Etic typologies are those that are perceived as sigificat by a objective researcher, regardless whether the developed categories possessed meaig to the origial makers ad users of a artifact. Emic typologies, coversely, are those that were recogized as belogig to specific categories by the makers ad 44

57 users of a artifact (Adams ad Adams 99:340). As with the categories listed previously, etic ad emic perspectives are usually utilized i a combiatio that suits the researcher s idividual eeds. To build the typology three research objectives were developed to guide the research. Each research objective will be preseted ad discussed alog with the methodology used for each objective. Research Objective : Develop a typology of Pesylvaia forts datig to the mid to late 8 th cetury. To fill the void of o existig fort typology withi the state of Pesylvaia, the first research objective was to geerate a fort list for the state of Pesylvaia that would be used to create the typology. To reiterate the defiitio of fort, as per this study, a fort is cosidered to be a structure that was erected, whether by military persoel or civilias, i order to defed ad hold a strategic locatio. Strategic locatios iclude those locatios whose loss would be detrimetal to a people s military plas or detrimetal to idividual property. Usig this defiitio, a fort list was costructed for the state of Pesylvaia by sythesizig published data available o the forts of Pesylvaia. Primary documets, moder referece materials about 8 th cetury coflicts ad forts, i cojuctio with archaeological site reports, were utilized to costruct the fort list. The state of Pesylvaia bega studyig its forts as early as 896 whe the Pesylvaia Idia Forts Commissio udertook the publicatio of a two-volume report titled Report of the Commissio to Locate the Site of the Frotier Forts of Pesylvaia. Withi these two volumes, published i 896 ad 96, several authors examied the state regioally ad provided a list of the forts by regio, accompaied whe available by a presetatio of fort histories. Sice the publicatio of these two refereces, other Pesylvaia authors have published o the topic ad added to the list of kow forts. I 960, William A. Huter sought 4

58 to combie the 896 ad 96 publicatios by the Pesylvaia Idia Forts Commissio ito a comprehesive ad accurate volume. The result was the Forts o the Pesylvaia Frotier, 3-8, which is revered as a premier resource o the topic. Other works, such as Outposts of the War for Empire: The Frech ad Eglish i Wester Pesylvaia: Their Armies, Their Forts, Their People by architectural historia Charles Stotz, ad The Frech ad Idia War i Pesylvaia 3-63 by Louis M. Waddell ad Bruce D. Bomberger have also expaded o the topic of Pesylvaia s forts. Other resources that were useful i the costructio of the fort list iclude such items as the Miutes of the Provicial Coucil of Pesylvaia, from the Orgaizatio of the Termiatio of the Proprietary Govermet, Cotaiig the Proceedigs of Coucil from April 2d, 4 to Jauary 29th, 6, both days Icluded (The State of Pesylvaia 8). The 203 publicatio edited by Lawrece E. Babits ad Stephaie Gadulla titled The Archaeology of Frech ad Idia War Frotier Forts was also examied. Archaeological site reports available through the Pesylvaia Historical Museum Commissio (PHMC) were also used to costruct the fort list. Such site reports as the report o Fort Pitt ad Fort Duquese (Blades 2006, 2009a, 2009b; Bliss 944) i additio to the report o Fort Loudou (Heberlig 99) were utilized i a attempt to autheticate iformatio preseted i other referece materials. Other resources that cotaied iformatio o sigular forts, such as publicatios about the histories of Fort Pitt (Dahliger 922), Fort Miffli (Dorwart 998), ad Fort McItosh (Graham 932) were used to assist with the geeratio of the fort list but to also assist with the ext stage of data collectio. A database was created where the iformatio geerated durig the data collectio stage was placed i order to orgaize iformatio before the typology was developed. Throughout the process of makig the fort list, historical iformatio was recorded for each fort icluded i the 46

59 fort list. The historical iformatio was obtaied through the use of the referece materials i additio to fort-specific iformatio take from other materials such as the websites of the Natioal Park Service (NPS 204c) ad the Pesylvaia Historical ad Museum Commissio, Fort Pitt for example (PHMC 204). The historical iformatio recorded for each fort was orgaized accordig to the attributes of the database. These attributes iclude: fort ame; the coflict for which the fort was costructed; pla ad layout; who commissioed the fort to be costructed; who built the fort; fort group; fort square footage; the year the fort was built; the year the fort was abadoed; umber of years the fort was abadoed; purpose for costructio whether by the coloial military, the British military, the Frech military, or private citizes; the locatio of the fort; distace to water i miles; distace to kow military roads i miles; distace to kow Native America pathways i miles; whether the fort was reused i a later coflict; costructio materials; the date the fort was last see; whether the fort has bee archeologically excavated; whether the fort was ispired by Vauba; ad a category titled Notes where iformatio such as other ames the fort was kow to have bee referred to was recorded. Withi the database, a referece sectio also exists for each fort (Appedix B ad C). As was expected, ot every fort had recorded iformatio for each of the attributes. Withi the database there exists variability i the available kowledge about the forts, which did ot allow for every fort to be fully aalyzed agaist the other forts withi the typology. The presece of a questio mark withi the database is the result of the iformatio beig ukow. For example, several forts have a questio mark i the field fort square footage because the iformatio has ot survived ito the preset, the fort has ot bee archaeologically excavated, or oly portios of the fort have bee archaeologically excavated, ad the square footage is thus ukow. 4

60 Oce the fort list ad the database were completed, the typology was created by aalyzig the variatio withi the attributes of the forts. This was completed through several meas, which will be discussed i tur. The results of these methods will be discussed i Chapter. As the data for this thesis is primarily omial i ature, the data for six attributes (pla ad layout, group, square footage, costructio materials, Vauba-ispired, ad purpose for costructio) were coded (Appedix A) so that statistical testig could be coducted usig Microsoft SPSS. Two statistical tests were coducted o the data withi the database: a multivariate aalysis ad a cluster aalysis. After examiig the results of these three tests it was determied, based o levels of sigificace p values were greater tha 0.0 which the results of the multivariate ad cluster aalysis did ot produce results that could be meaigfully iterpreted. The results of the multivariate aalysis were additioally ot utilized because a multivariate aalysis works best whe the variables are either depedet or idepedet i ature (Pesylvaia State Uiversity 2006). Based o the results of a Pearso s chi-square test of idepedece, several attributes (purpose, pla ad layout, square footage, costructio material ad Vauba ispired) were foud to be too depedet o the group attribute. Additioally, whe the cluster aalysis was coducted, the results did ot show clear clusterig. The six attributes which were coded for statistical testig were further orgaized ito frequecy distributios, which were the tested i a Pearso s chi test; however, the data did ot led itself to these methods because there was isufficiet data for the o-british forts. With the previous statistical tests resultig i icoclusive results, it was determied that the typology would be based o the qualitative aalysis of the iformatio cotaied withi the fort database. The completed typology will be discussed i the followig chapter. 48

61 To further assist with the aalysis of the forts icluded withi the Pesylvaia typology, the locatios of the forts were mapped ito ArcMap to allow for a geographical aalysis of the forts to be completed (Figure 2). This map was used to coduct the earest eighbor aalysis which was completed as part of the aalysis. The map also serves as a visual aid which represets the areas the groups costructig these forts sought to cotrol. Figure 2. Map of Pesylvaia forts used i Aalysis. Research Objective 2: Coduct a compariso betwee all groups of forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War. To demostrate how the typology ca be used, this research objective was created to idetify similarities ad differeces betwee the forts withi Pesylvaia datig oly to the Frech ad Idia War. The groups that were examied to idetify similarities ad 49

62 differeces withi the forts iclude Frech, British, Coloial, ad Private. The results from this compariso will be preseted i the followig chapter. This research objective is limited to the Frech ad Idia War forts for two reasos: ) Frech forts were ot costructed after the termiatio of the Frech ad Idia War, 2) the Frech forts existig i the state of Pesylvaia were trasferred ito British power after the Frech ad Idia War eded; modificatios were the made to the forts. This research objective is limited to forts withi Pesylvaia so that a uderstadig of the forts withi the commowealth of Pesylvaia could be uderstood.. The first step i the compariso betwee the groups that comprise the typology was to examie how the average fort sizes of each group compared to oe aother. A table cotaiig the average square footages by group was created to depict which groups costructed the largest forts. Additioally, the forts with kow square footage values were plotted ito a bar graph that was color coded by group to depict which forts by group were the largest withi the state of Pesylvaia. Descriptive statistics were the utilized to coduct a compariso betwee the pla ad layout of the various forts by group i a attempt to determie which shape was favored by which group. It was determied that descriptive statistics, primarily measurig cetral tedecies ad measurig variability, would be utilized to further test the data. I additio to this compariso, a frequecy distributio was ru i Microsoft SPSS i a attempt to determie the degree to which each group relied upo the fort desigs created by Vauba based o the codig metioed previously withi this documet. To determie which groups relied predomiately o which pla ad layout, a series of tables was created to depict the total forts of a specific pla 0

63 ad layout i correlatio to fort size. The results of the frequecy distributio were reflected i histograms, which were created i Microsoft SPSS. A compariso betwee the locatio ad the effect locatio had o attributes such as size, distace to water, distace to kow Native America pathways, distace to military roads, ad costructio materials was also completed through descriptive statistics i a attempt to determie what treds existed betwee these attributes for each group. As part of this aalysis, a earest eighbor aalysis was completed to determie if the forts of the Frech ad Idia War formed groups alog the ladscape or if they were dispersed. To assist with idetifyig treds betwee locatio ad the attributes of size, distace to water, distace to kow Native America pathways, distace to military roads ad costructio materials, a table was created, which represets a selectio of forts by group ad represets the distace to water, military roads ad Native America pathways. The selectio of forts was chose to iclude forts of sigificace i additio to forts that exemplified a group s style of fort. A fial table was created to determie which costructio materials were favored by which group i a attempt to determie if a tred was discerable for costructio materials. A examiatio of fort maps was also udertake i a attempt to examie 8 th cetury fort variability. Oly forts that were erected as a result of advaced plaig were used for this aalysis. Of the forts withi the database, just twelve forts were idetified to have kow detailed maps still i existece. Some maps utilized i this aalysis were created after the forts were o loger i use, some datig to oe hudred years after the fort was last used for military purposes. These maps were used for two reasos: ) No other map was foud to survive of the fort datig to a earlier period, ad 2) The maps were created based o iformatio obtaied through historical documetatio i a attempt to preset a accurate represetatio of the fort.

64 Ufortuately, o survivig maps were discovered of the forts of Private costructors ad just oe was discovered for the forts of Coloial group. Coloial forts are those forts which were costructed o orders of the Pesylvaia coloial govermet ad do ot have ties specifically to the British or Frech militaries. Maps for oly two of the Frech forts were discovered, ad seve maps were obtaied for British forts. The results of the map comparisos will be preseted accordig to group ad the pla ad layout of the forts. As the forts of each group were aalyzed, treds idetified to exist withi the group were examied. After all available fort maps were examied, overarchig treds idetified i the various groups were idetified with the treds beig discussed i detail i the results sectio. Oce the treds idetified throughout the groups were idetified ad discussed a examiatio of 8 th cetury fort variability was coducted to determie to what degree variatios existed betwee the forts of the differig groups. The results of these aalysis methods are preseted i Chapter 4. Research Objective 3: Use the typology to examie the variability amog 8 th cetury forts, ad examie how these variatios relate to treds i 8 th cetury society ad techology. To further demostrate how the typology ca be used to aswer research questios, Research Objective 3 was developed. To complete this research objective, it was ecessary for a ew fort database to be created i which iformatio o forts located outside of Pesylvaia could be orgaized. The secod fort database (Appedix C) is comprised of forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War oly. This was doe to maitai cosistecy throughout this project. The database for o- Pesylvaia forts was orgaized accordig to the attributes ad typology developed for the forts of Pesylvaia to esure cohesiveess. The forts outside of Pesylvaia are located i several locatios withi the cotietal Uited States ad Caada. These locatios iclude: Illiois, Louisiaa, Marylad, Michiga, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolia, South 2

65 Carolia, Teessee, Virgiia, West Virgiia, Maitoba, New Bruswick, Nova Scotia, Otario, ad Quebec. Forts located outside of Pesylvaia were icluded i the aalysis ad typology based o the degree to which the attributes of the typology were fulfilled. Forts with miimal iformatio that left gaps withi the typology were ot icluded withi the study. The o- Pesylvaia forts were also chose i a maer which would demostrate the degree that the forts of the Frech ad Idia War were geographically dispersed throughout the North America cotiet. As with the case of the Pesylvaia forts, the o-pesylvaia forts were also mapped ito ArcMap for aalysis purposes. The fort database was created i the same maer as the pervious fort database. The use of referece materials, icludig books about idividual forts, such as Fort Bull (Hagerty 92), Forts Beauséjour ad Cumberlad (Bru 203), ad Fort Michilimackiac (Bailey 904) were used to geerate the secod fort database. Additioally, archaeological site reports were also used, such as the site report for the archaeological excavatios completed at the locatio of Fort de Figureres (Jelks et. al. 989). Other resources such as Fortress America: The Forts that Defeded America 600 to Preset by J.E. ad H.W. Kaufma (2004), Crucible of War ad The War that Made America: A Short History of the Frech ad Idia War both by Fred Aderso (2000; 2006) were also helpful i obtaiig the ecessary historical iformatio to complete the secod database. A database ad typology was the created for the o-pesylvaia forts so a compariso could be made betwee all of the groups that costructed forts durig the Frech ad Idia War. The aalysis was completed accordig to the methods described for Research Objective 2 to determie if treds ad patters recogized i the results of the first compariso cotiue ito the forts located outside of Pesylvaia. However, i the aalysis for Research 3

66 Objective 3 a earest eighbor aalysis was ot completed due to the forts beig placed throughout umerous states ad provices. A aalysis was also ot doe o the distace betwee the forts ad kow military roads because researchig military roads outside of Pesylvaia was beyod the scope of this project. Similarly, o aalysis was doe betwee the distace of the forts ad kow pathways created by Native America. The results of this secod compariso were the compared to the results of the first compariso through the use of descriptive statistics. For cosistecy the measuremets of cetral tedecies ad measuremets of variability will be used, i a attempt to idetify ad track treds associated with 8 th cetury British ad Frech coloial society ad techology. The results of this compariso will be discussed i Chapter 4. 4

67 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS The results of the aalyses coducted for this thesis are preseted withi this chapter. The aalysis ad results were guided by the methods discussed i the previous chapter to esure cohesiveess ad efficiecy. The results of these aalyses will be discussed later i Chapter ad will be orgaized by research objective. Research Objective : Develop a typology of Pesylvaia forts datig to the mid to late 8 th cetury. As metioed i the previous chapter, the typology for Pesylvaia forts was created based o a qualitative aalysis of the iformatio cotaied withi the fort database. Through the qualitative aalysis it was determied that the attributes of pla ad layout, purpose for costructio, Vauba ispired, square footage, ad costructio materials were liked to the attribute of group. This led to the creatio of a typology based o the costructor of the fort by group. Based o this summatio, the typology was grouped based o the attribute of the group of the fort s egieer. The typology is comprised of seve types which will be preseted i the followig chapter. The other attributes, those of purpose for costructio, pla ad layout, square footage, costructio materials, ad Vauba-ispired were used to icrease the uderstadig of the types by group. The attribute of purpose for costructio was divided ito two groups: sigle purpose those that were costructed ad utilized solely for the purpose of oly oe group type, ad double purpose those forts which were costructed ad utilized by a combiatio of the group types. Pla ad layout was divided based o star fort, irregular fort, square fort ad stockade forts. Vauba-ispired forts were itegrated with the attribute of pla ad layout as Vauba is credited with the creatio of both star forts ad irregular stars. A

68 arbitrary classificatio system based o size was created for use withi this thesis: small (,000 to 40,000 square feet), medium (4,000 to 80,000 square feet), large (8,000+ square feet). The costructio material attribute was ot chaged ad is comprised of wood, stoe, earth ad combiatio of these three materials such as wood ad earth, wood ad stoe, or earth ad stoe. The typology i correspodece to the attributes discussed withi this paragraph is represeted i Table. Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Purpose for Costructio Table. Pesylvaia Typology Pla ad Layout Square Footage i Square Feet Costructio Materials Fort Augusta Militarized- Star Fort Medium -? Coloial 4,66 Fort Bedford Militarized-British Irregular Star Medium - Wood Fort 63,4 Fort Burd Militarized- British Star Fort Small- 9,06? Fort Presque Militarized-British Square Fort?? Isle Fort Halifax Militarized- Star Fort Small - Earth Coloial 2,600 Fort Hamilto Militarized- Irregular Star Small - 6,400? Coloial Fort Fort Juiata Militarized-British Irregular Star Small -20,000 Wood Crossig Fort Fort le Boeuf Militarized- British Star Fort?? Fort Lebao Militarized- Stockade Small -? Coloial 0,000 Fort Ligoier Militarized- British Stockaded Small - Wood Star Fort 2,224 Fort Lyttelto Militarized- Star Fort Small - Wood Coloial/ British 0,000 Fort Loudou Militarized- Square Fort Small - Wood Coloial/ British 6,640 Fort Morris Militarized Coloial Star Fort? Stoe ad Wood Fort Necessity Militarized- British/ Coloial Circular Stockade Small - 2,206 Wood 6

69 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Purpose for Costructio Pla ad Layout Square Footage i Square Feet Costructio Materials Fort Northkill Militarized Square Small -,024? Coloial Stockade Fort Pitt Militarized- British Irregular Star Large -9,940 Earth Fort Fort Shirley Private/ Militarized Star Fort? Wood Coloial Fort Veago Militarized- British Irregular Star Fort? Wood Mercer's Fort Militarized British Star Fort?? Fort Pe Private??? Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name Purpose for Costructio Pla ad Layout Square Footage i Square Feet Fort de la Militarized Frech Star Fort? Wood Presque Isle Fort Duquese Militarized Frech Star Fort Small - 6,400 Wood Fort De La Militarized Frech Star Fort?? Rivière Au Boeuf Fort Machault Militarized - Frech Star Fort?? Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Square Purpose for Pla ad Footage i Costructio Layout Square Feet Fort Alle Militarized- Coloial Irregular Small - 6,20 Wood? Star Fort Fort Frakli Militarized- Coloial Square Fort Small -,600? Fort Huter Private/Militarized Stockade?? Coloial Fort Hydshaw Private/ Militarized- Square Fort?? Coloial Fort Norris Militarized- Coloial Irregular Small -6,400? Star Fort Fort Swatara Private/Militarized Square?? Coloial Stockade Carlisle Fort Militarized - Coloial Stockade?? Costructio Materials Costructio Materials

70 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Purpose for Costructio Pla ad Layout Square Footage i Square Feet Costructio Materials Fort McCord Private Stockade?? Fort Reed Private Irregular Star Fort Small -,66 Wood Type Five- Pesylvaia Group Fort Name Square Purpose for Pla ad Footage i Costructio Layout Square Feet Fort Wyomig Private Square Fort? Wood Costructio Materials Type Six- Coecticutia Group Fort Name Purpose for Costructio Pla ad Layout Forty Fort Private Stockaded Star Fort Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Purpose for Costructio Pla ad Layout Square Footage i Square Feet? Wood Square Footage i Square Feet Costructio Materials Costructio Materials Fort Armstrog Militarized- Stockade? Wood America Fort Augusta Militarized- America Star Fort Medium - 4,66? Fort Crawford Militarized Stockade? Wood America Fort Frakli Militarized- America Star Fort? Wood ad Earth Fort le Bouef Militarized- Star Fort?? America Fort McItosh Militarized- Star Fort Large - 86,06 Wood America Fort Miffli Militarized - Star Fort Large - Wood ad Earth America 44,483 Fort Preservatio Militarized - America Star Fort? Wood Fort Roberdeau Private Star Fort? Wood Fort Stadig Private/Militarized - Stockade?? Stoe America Fort Wyomig Private Square Fort?? Wood Fort Fayette Militarized- America Stockaded Star Fort? Wood 8

71 Research Objective 2: Coduct a compariso betwee all groups of forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War. After the comparisos were completed for all groups, it was possible to idetify treds for each group ad to compare these treds to the other groups. All idetified treds will be discussed i detail a attempt to uderstad the huma activities which developed them. The first step i the compariso betwee the groups that make up the typology was to examie how the average fort sizes of each group compared. As stated i the methods sectio, this compariso of average square footages was completed by ruig a Pearso s chi-squared test. The results of the Pearso s chi-squared aalysis were determied to be icoclusive due to a small sample size, oly forts out of 3 possessig square footage iformatio. Based o the Pearso s chisquared result it was decided that the square footage totals for each atio would be examied through descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics were completed by comparig the average square footage by group i a attempt to ascertai which group costructed the largest forts (Table 2). Table 2. Average Square Footage Measuremets by Costructor Group British 24,934 Frech 6,400 Coloial 4,0 Private ukow Iitially, it was thought that the forts of British group would be the largest based o the sheer size of some of the idividual forts, Fort Pitt, for example, has a square footage of 9,940, but this assumptio proved to be false. Additioally, it was believed that the forts of the Frech group would have a smaller average square footage sice the forts were costructed betwee 9

72 3 ad 4 whe the fightig was limited to the frotier; this assumptio proved to be correct. The average for the forts of Private group was uavailable as the oly privately costructed Frech ad Idia War fort was ot foud to have a recorded square footage. While these averages, excludig the Private group forts, represet the groups as a whole, there is a bias withi the data that has affected the results of the averages. Withi the database, there exist gaps where the iformatio is ukow about certai forts. This missig iformatio has affected the data by providig a icomplete image of the fort sizes. The square footage averages represet 3 forts, of which oly have kow square footage iformatio. It is possible that this bias was fueled by those who studied Pesylvaia s forts previously. Earlier archaeologists ad researchers could have bee attracted to the larger forts, such as Fort Pitt ad Fort Ligoier, which figured so promietly withi Pesylvaia s history. Forts that were ot historically sigificat could have bee recorded as simply existig with o further ivestigatio through historical records or the archaeological record takig place. As a result, this iadvertetly biased available iformatio for future researchers by creatig gaps withi the available records. I a attempt to examie the square footages with a miimal amout of bias, the forts with available square footage iformatio were plotted ito a bar graph (Figure 3) i a attempt to determie which group was costructig the largest forts. The treds idetified withi the comparisos of the square footage averages remaied true whe the raw square footage data was compared. However, the available square footage iformatio for the forts costructed by the Frech, the Pesylvaia Coloial army ad those costructed by private idividuals may ot adequately represet the average square footage for the actual populatio. The British forts were by far the largest forts, followed by the Frech ad the the Coloial forts. The ukow 60

73 9,06 6,400 2,600 20,000 0,000 0,000 2,206,024 6,400 6,20,600 6,400 2,224 6,640 4,66 63,4 9,940 average square footage for forts costructed by private idividuals reflects the bias discussed previously withi this paragraph ad could ot be utilized for a aalysis based o size. FORT SQUARE FOOTAGES Figure 3. Square footage of Pesylvaia forts. Forts depicted i red represet British forts, forts depicted with blue deote the Frech forts, gree depicts Coloial forts, ad purple depicts Private forts. The results of the frequecy distributio were used coduct a compariso betwee the pla ad layout of the various forts by group i a attempt to determie which style was favored by which group i additio to determiig the degree to which the groups relied upo the styles created by Vauba, star fort ad irregular star fort, will also be preseted here (Table 3). The British favored star forts above other styles, but these forts were ot amog the largest that they costructed. Despite the small umber of irregular star forts costructed by the British, these forts were larger tha the star forts. The third pla ad layout which was favored by the British was square forts, followed by circular ad the plai stockaded forts, which are ot listed as havig a defiitive shape but simply a walled area. I cotrast, the forts of Frech group are comprised of oly star forts, four i total, with a average of 6,400 square feet. The forts of the 6

74 Table 3. Average Square Footage of Each Pla ad Layout Costructed by British 9 Star Forts 2,32 square feet Irregular Star Forts 3,2 square feet 3 Square Forts,888 square feet Circular 2,206 square feet Stockade 0,000 square feet Coloial ad Private groups each had a smaller variety for the attribute of pla ad layout. The forts of Coloial group have 3 differet pla ad layout styles that were idetified (Table 4). The most favored pla ad layout style of the Coloial group is that of a fortified house which have a ukow average. Table 4. Average Square Footage of Each Pla ad Layout Costructed by Coloials Irregular Star Fort 6,32 square feet 3 Square Fort,600 square feet 2 Stockade ukow The forts of Private group have six differet plas ad layouts that have bee idetified. The most prevalet pla ad layout for the Private forts is that of stockaded farmhouse but the average square footage is ukow. As with the Coloial forts, some of the average square footage values for the Private forts may ot reflect the average for the etire populatio as some of the square footage values are ukow. After calculatig the mea of square footage i additio to the square footage of each pla ad layout that occurred withi the groups ivolved i the Frech ad Idia War, it was 62

75 possible to calculate the degree to which the differig groups relied upo the pla ad layouts created by Vauba: star forts ad irregular star forts. The degree of Vauba-ispiratio will be discussed before a compariso will be made for the fort square footages based o various groups ad the pla ad layouts which are represeted by the square footages. Accordig to Table, the forts of both the British ad Frech groups were heavily iflueced by Vauba. The forts of British group are comprised primarily out of star forts followed by irregular star forts i additio to forts of o-vauba ispiratio (Tables 3 ad ). The forts of Frech group are comprised Table. Degree of Vauba Ispiratio by Fort Egieer Group British Vauba Ispiratio 4 No-Vauba Ispiratio Frech Vauba Ispiratio 4 No-Vauba Ispiratio 0 Coloial Vauba Ispiratio 2 No-Vauba Ispiratio Private Vauba Ispiratio 0 No-Vauba Ispiratio solely of star forts. Coloial forts were foud to favor square forts ad stockade forts which were ot ispired by the styles created by Vauba (Tables 4 ad ). The forts of the Coloial 63

76 group were ot heavily ispired by Vauba as they favored forts that were comprised of other styles, such as fortified farmhouses ad fortified storehouses, styles which were ot utilized i the aalysis as they do ot fit the defiitio of fort used withi this study. The forts of Coloial group were ot greatly iflueced by Vauba; this result was expected, sice a large umber of these forts were costructed by coloial militia or by private citizes with miimal militia experiece ad were subsequetly utilized by the British army. The small umber of Coloial forts that are ispired by Vauba were costructed by idividuals who had experiece i the militia or i the British Army. Fort Graville is oe such fort with Vauba-ispiratio; Fort Graville was ordered costructed by Pesylvaia Goveror Robert Morris ad was costructed uder commad of George Crogha whom had extesive experiece with the British Army (Huter 960:38; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8). Forts created by private idividuals were foud to favor stockade forts, a style ot favored by Vauba (Tables ). The majority of the forts costructed by private idividuals were comprised of other pla ad layout styles such as fortified storehouse ad homesteads which were ot favored by Vauba. As with the case of the Coloial forts, pla ad layout styles do ot meet the defiitio of fort used for this thesis ad were ot used for ay aalyses. This lack of Vauba ispiratio ca be explaied by the builders of the private forts, idividual settlers who may or may ot have had experiece i the coloial militia or British army who sought to protect their families, lad ad property. Examiig the degree of Vauba-ispiratio for the Frech ad Idia War forts of Pesylvaia as a whole, the majority of the forts were ot ispired by Vauba but were comprised of other styles (Table ). This was mostly due to the small umber of forts preset withi the Coloial forts ad the forts costructed by private idividuals ad the miimal degree 64

77 of Vauba-ispiratio. Of the other forts which were ispired by Vauba, there are more star forts tha irregular star forts across all groups. This aalysis deotes the commoalities ad differeces betwee the various groups of the forts egieers or developers of the Frech ad Idia War. As the results have show, forts of Private group costructed large forts that were comprised of multiple forts ot directly associated with those styles developed by Vauba; rather, fort of Private group were costructed i styles that met the eeds of the idividuals who developed them. The idividuals who costructed the Private forts had miimal military affiliatio, if ay was preset at all ad i this way, they are uique to themselves. Bor of a eed to protect idividual people, the forts of Private group do ot follow the treds that ca be see i the forts of the British, Frech, ad Coloial groups. Several treds ca be see i the forts of the other groups, of which iclude a reliace o the pla ad layout styles coceived by Vauba. While the ifluece of Vauba is strogest amog the forts of the Frech group, which was expected sice Vauba himself was a Frechma, the same ifluece has bee idetified i the forts of the British ad Coloial groups. Aother tred that ca be idetified withi the square footage of the plas ad layouts of these groups is that of the size of the forts. O the idividual level of the groups, the star forts ted to be smaller tha the irregular star forts. The combied average of star forts for the British ad Frech forts is 9,2 square feet. The combied square footage average for all irregular star forts for the British ad Coloial groups is 28,390 square feet. The average square footage for the square forts of the British ad Coloial forts is 2,2. The average square footage for the stockade forts of the British, Coloial ad private forts is 4,882. This differece betwee the 6

78 average square footages ad the idividual square footages ca possibly be explaied by the larger umber of star forts costructed durig the Frech ad Idia War withi the state of Pesylvaia. This research idetified 3 star forts ad oly seve irregularly star forts. Aother area of compariso betwee the various groups withi Pesylvaia datig to the Frech ad Idia War is that of locatio ad the degree that locatio affected attributes such as size, distace to water, distace to kow Native America pathways, distace to military roads ad costructio material. Withi the database created for this project, there are 3 forts of the Frech ad Idia War withi the Commowealth of Pesylvaia, of which there are 30 with kow locatios (Figure 4). The total umber of forts datig to this coflict is actually higher as some forts, such as Fort Pomfret Castle, have bee metioed withi portios of the historical records but are surrouded by debates as to whether the forts were actually costructed (Schlegel 942; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:, 88). 66

79 Figure 4. Map of Pesylvaia s Frech ad Idia War forts with kow locatios. I a attempt to determie if a patter was discerable i the placemet of the forts with kow locatios withi Pesylvaia, a earest eighbor aalysis was coducted. The earest eighbor aalysis was completed by dividig the observed earest eighbor distace, the sum of the areas betwee the forts divided by the cout of forts, by the square root of the total area of study, Pesylvaia, divided by the total umber of poits multiplied by 0. (Hodder ad Orto 96:38-43). To complete the earest eighbor aalysis the distaces betwee Pesylvaia forts (N=4) were measured withi ArcMap (Table 6). The map was a.-miute topographic map at a scale of :4,000,000. 6

80 Table 6. Nearest Neighbor Aalysis Data Fort Name Nearest Fort Nearest Fort Distace i Miles Fort Alle Trucker's Mill Fort Augusta Fort Halifax Fort Bedford Fort Juiata Crossig 6.30 Fort Burd Fort Necessity Fort Chambers Fort McCord Fort de la Presque Isle Fort De La Rivière Au 9.00 Bouef Fort Presque Isle Fort le Bouef 9.00 Fort Deshler Trucker's Mill 0.00 Fort Duquese Fort Pitt 0.00 Fort Everett Fort Frakli.000 Fort Frakli Fort Everett.000 Fort George Fort Robiso 6.30 Fort Graville Fort George 8.00 Fort Halifax Fort Huter 2.00 Fort Hamilto Fort Hydshaw 6.20 Fort Harris Fort Huter.000 Fort Hery Fort Swatara 4.00 Fort Huter Fort Robiso Fort Hydshaw Fort Hamilto 6.20 Fort Juiata Crossig Fort Bedford 6.30 Fort De La Rivière Au Fort de la Presque Isle 9.00 Bouef Fort le Bouef Fort Presque Isle 9.00 Fort Lebao Fort Hery 9.00 Table 6: Nearest Neighbor Aalysis Data Fort Name Nearest Fort Nearest Fort Distace i Miles Fort Letort Carlisle Fort.000 Fort Ligoier Fort Necessity Fort Lyttelto Fort Loudou 6.00 Fort Loudou Fort Lyttleto 6.00 Fort Machault Fort Augusta Fort Maada Adam Reed's 3.00 Fort McCord Fort Chambers Fort Morris Fort Huter Fort Necessity Fort Burd Fort Norris Trucker's Mill

81 Table 6: Nearest Neighbor Aalysis Data Fort Name Nearest Fort Nearest Fort Distace i Miles Fort Patterso Fort Robiso 6.30 Fort Pitt Fort Duquese 0.00 Fort Robiso Fort George 6.30 Fort Shirley Fort Lyttleto Fort Swatara Adam Reed's Fort Veago Fort Augusta Adam Reed's Fort Swatara Carlisle Fort Fort Letort.000 McDowell's Mill Fort McCord 2.20 Mercer's Fort Fort Pitt Tret's Fort Fort Duquese Trucker's Mill Fort Alle For the forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War the calculatios are as follows: (69.93)/ (3) = ,0 4. =.99 =.966 The result of the earest eighbor aalysis equaled The earest eighbor aalysis showed that the forts of Pesylvaia datig to the Frech ad Idia War were seemigly placed i a dispersed patter. However, other iformatio disputes that the forts were etirely placed at radom. There is iformatio that suggests that forts costructed by the British, Frech ad Coloial armies were placed i strategic locatios for the explicit purpose of cotrollig critical locatios while protectig supplies ad settlers. Figure 4 depicts the locatio of Pesylvaia s forts with kow locatios that were costructed i locatios that the British, Frech, Coloial armies, ad private idividuals sought to cotrol. The forts represeted i Figure 4 are those that have a kow locatio ad those which figured promietly durig the Frech ad Idia War. The forts depicted i Figure 4 were determied to ot have bee placed radomly by examiig three attributes from the fort database: distace to water, distace to Native America pathways ad distace to kow military roads. The distace iformatio of these forts also 69

82 shows treds of the three groups themselves. Table represets the distace iformatio for the forts reflected i Figure 4. All distace measuremets i Table are i miles ad were measured usig ArcMap (Figure 4 ad Appedix G). The distaces were checked agaist two maps (Figures ad 6), which were georefereced to a USGS.-miute topographic base map i ArcMap. Table. Pesylvaia Forts with Kow Locatios Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Distace to Water i Distace to Military Distace to Kow Miles Road i Miles Paths i Miles Fort Augusta Susquehaa River -.08 ot ear military road 0.00 Fort Bedford Duig Creek to Forbes.84 Fort Burd Moogahela River - ot ear military road Fort Presque Lake Erie -.9 ot ear military road 0.00 Isle Fort Halifax Susquehaa River -.6 ot ear military road 2.8 Fort Hamilto McMichael Creek -. ot ear military road 2. Fort Juiata Juiata River to Forbes.60 Crossig Fort le Boeuf LeBouef Creek -.04 ot ear military road 0.00 Fort Lebao Schuylkill River -.06 ot ear military road.6 Fort Ligoier Loyalhaa Creek to Forbes.98 Table : Pesylvaia Forts with Kow Locatios Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Distace to Water i Distace to Military Distace to Kow Miles Road i Miles Paths i Miles Fort Lyttelto Little Aughwick Creek to Forbes.3.32 Fort Loudou W Brach of 0.00 to Forbes.26 Coococheague Creek -. Fort Morris Gum Ru -. ad 0.00 to Forbes.96 Burd Ru -.3 Fort Necessity Big Sady Creek to Braddock

83 Table : Pesylvaia Forts with Kow Locatios Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Distace to Water i Distace to Military Distace to Kow Miles Road i Miles Paths i Miles Fort Pitt Alleghey River -.3, 0.00 to Forbes, Moogahela River -., Ohio River -.23 to Braddock Fort Shirley Aughwick Creek -.2 ot ear military road 0.00 to Pathway Fort Veago Dry Ru -. ot ear military road.6 Mercer's Fort Alleghey River -.3, Moogahela River -., Ohio River to Forbes, 6.03 to Braddock 0.00 Table : Pesylvaia Forts with Kow Locatios Type Two- Frech Group Distace to Fort Name Distace to Water i Miles Military Road i Miles Fort de la Presque Isle Lake Erie -.9 ot ear military road Fort Duquese Alleghey River -.0, 0.00 to Forbes, Moogahela River -.0, 6.03 to Braddock Ohio River -.3 Fort De La Rivière LeBouef Creek -.04 ot ear military Au Boeuf road Fort Machault Dry Ru -. ot ear military road Type Three- Coloial Group Distace to Fort Name Distace to Water i Miles Military Road i Miles Fort Alle Lehigh River -.0 ot ear military road Fort Frakli Lizard Creek -. ot ear military road Table : Pesylvaia Forts with Kow Locatios Distace to Kow Paths i Miles Distace to Kow Paths i Miles

84 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Distace to Water i Miles Fort Huter Susquehaa River -.0 Distace to Military Road i Miles ot ear military road Distace to Kow Paths i Miles 2.66 Fort Hydshaw Bush Kill River -.2 ot ear military.2 road Fort Norris Middle Creek -.33 ot ear military 3.29 road Fort Swatara Swatara Creek -.6 ot ear military 9. road Carlisle Fort Letort Sprig Ru to Forbes 0.00 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Distace to Water i Miles Distace to Military Road i Miles Distace to Kow Paths i Miles Fort McCord Pequea Creek -.6 ot ear military road 0.00 Figure. Native America pathways withi Pesylvaia (Wallace 993). 2

85 Figure 6. Map of military roads withi Pesylvaia durig the Frech ad Idia War (Waddell ad Bomber 996:42). Several treds were idetified based o the iformatio preseted i Table. Oe tred that becomes apparet is the close proximity of the forts to water. The majority of the forts withi Pesylvaia are less tha oe mile away from the earest source of water; the Frech forts are a average of 0.46 miles away from water, the British forts are o average 0.34 miles away from water, the Coloial forts are a average of 0.24 miles away from water, ad forts costructed by private idividuals 0.6 miles away from water. The tred of the Pesylvaia s forts beig located ear fresh water sources durig the Frech ad Idia War cotiues throughout the database. The tred of all the groups favorig the placemet of forts withi oe mile of fresh water ca very easily be explaied i that the idividuals costructig the forts realized that their survival depeded upo their access to water. I a period where roads could be othig more tha footpaths, which complicated travel, waterways were a efficiet way for armies to ship supplies to outposts i additio to trasportig soldiers ad ammuitios. Water was such a 3

86 valued mode of trasportatio that the Forks of the Ohio River located i moder Pittsburgh, the site of both Fort Duquese ad Fort Pitt, was the scee where the Frech ad British egaged i battle to wi the right to cotrol the waterway i additio the areas where the water could lead a army. Other forts of this time were also placed alog major water ways, such as Fort Augusta, which was costructed o the cofluece of the Susquehaa River i a attempt to allow the British to cotrol trasportatio o the river. Aother example of forts costructed alog water ways is Fort Juiata Crossig, which was costructed so that it could effectively straddle the Juiata River ad cotrol the river s trasportatio. Access to water was ot oly beeficial for trasportatio, but it also supplied food ad water. To esure that the forts would be able to use water for trasportatio ad drikig military egieers would have chose locatios, which offered them a strategic advatage i additio to reliable water ways. Additioally, some forts, such as Fort Pitt, possessed wells to provide water for the garriso withi the safety of the forts walls. A additioal tred which is idetifiable i Table is the degree to which forts are located ear kow Native America pathways withi the state of Pesylvaia. It is kow that settlers ad military persoel of the mid-8 th cetury relied o pathways, which had bee established by Native Americas ad that a great deal of the travel withi the regio was completed by followig these pathways as the waterways were ofte difficult to avigate (Wallace 993:2). I additio to roadways, the military egieers of the Frech ad Idia War udoubtedly relied upo the Native America pathways as a meas for trasportig supplies, soldiers ad artillery. The forts preseted i Table, the average of how close the various groups placed their forts to kow pathways was calculated as follows: the Frech forts were located o average.90 miles from pathways; the British were o average. miles from 4

87 pathways, Coloial forts were a average of.4 miles from pathways ad forts costructed by private idividuals were foud to be immediately adjacet to pathways. It was expected that the Private forts would be located close to Native America pathways as these forts were typically costructed o private property or i geeralized meetig places, which would likely be coected to surroudig tows ad areas through a series of established pathways. It was also expected that the forts of the Frech ad British groups would be located alog Native America pathways for two reasos: ) The Native America allies of both Empires would likely have relied upo the pathways kow to their tribes ad could have passed this iformatio o to the Frech ad British militaries. 2) Both the Frech ad British Empires sought to cotrol the lad that would become Pesylvaia ad i doig so would likely utilize every possible trasportatio etwork available to them. Access to more trasportatio etworks would have allowed both Empires to more effectively trasport a multitude of items across the ladscape i their quest for Empire ad total domiatio of a cotiet. The result of the average distaces of Coloial forts to Native America pathways was surprisig. The author hypothesized that the Coloial govermet would have take advatage of the available pathways i additio to the attaiable waterways; however, the data does ot support this hypothesis. There is evidece to suggest that the forts costructed by the Coloial govermet were costructed based o the assumptio that systematic ragig by detachmets of soldiers, movig from oe post to aother, would effectively detect ad deflect icomig war parties (Waddell 996:84). The Coloial forts were strategically placed i locatios that were ot based o proximity to Native America pathways but based o creatig a chai of forts to protect the resources ad people of the coloy.

88 A fial tred that ca be idetified through Table is the degree to which the locatio of military roads played i the placemet of forts. Noe of the Frech forts were located ear Pesylvaia s military roads, likely because the Frech forts withi Pesylvaia were costructed prior to the completio of the British-built military roads i Pesylvaia. The military roads were costructed i attempt to destroy the Frech Fort Duquese ad claim the Forks of the Ohio for the British. British forts i Table are divided betwee those that are located ear the military roads, or rather built alog Forbes Road as it was beig costructed, ad those that were ot located ear the military roads. British forts ot located ear a military road are withi close proximity to waterways ad pathways ad were costructed prior to the costructio of Forbes Road i 8. The Coloial forts, like the Frech forts, were ot located ear military roads. British forts were o average less tha oe mile from military roads; the Coloial forts were ot typically placed ear military roads except for oe fort, Carlisle Fort which was located 0 miles from Forbes Road. The forts costructed by private idividuals were ot located ear military roads, although this result is based o oly oe fort. The average distace to military roads of the British forts was uchaged as was expected sice Pesylvaia s two military roads were costructed by the British army. The average for the Frech forts also did ot chage. The Coloial average deotes that the Coloial forts were ideed located withi proximity to military roads; however, the majority of Coloial forts were costructed prior to Forbes Road i 8 (Appedix B). That the majority of the Coloial forts were costructed prior to Forbes Road deotes that the Pesylvaia Coloial govermet was forced to costruct forts idepedetly of British aid prior to 8 before the British Army provided aid to the Pesylvaia coloy (Waddell 996:8-86). Based o this iformatio ad the data preseted i Table, oly the British forts were costructed ear the military roads 6

89 that they costructed. The forts costructed by the other groups were costructed prior to the military roads beig costructed or were ot located ear the military roads oce the roads had bee completed. The attribute of costructio materials was also examied to further the compariso betwee the groups withi Pesylvaia durig the Frech ad Idia War. It was iitially believed that the majority of the forts would be costructed out of wood as Pesylvaia is rich i timber. Ufortuately, the iformatio for the costructio materials attribute was greatly affected by a lack of iformatio available based o which materials were used i the costructio of the forts. Out of the 3 forts icluded withi the database oly 3 have available costructio materials iformatio. Of the 3 forts with iformatio regardig costructio material available, of the forts were costructed out of wood, 2 were costructed out of earth, was costructed out of a combiatio of wood ad stoe (Table 8). As Table 8 shows, the British ad Coloial forts have the largest umber of forts costructed out of wood ad are the oly two groups that utilized other costructio materials aside Table 8. Total Number of Forts by Costructio Material Frech British Coloial Private 2 wood 8 wood 2 earth wood ad stoe wood ukow from wood. The British were the oly group to costruct forts solely out of earth while the Coloials were the oly group to costruct forts completely out of stoe. The British ad Coloial forts are the oly forts to be costructed out of a combiatio of costructio materials wood ad stoe. While the iformatio i Table 8 supports the origial hypothesis that the

90 forts of Pesylvaia would be costructed primarily out of wood, oe must remember that the umber of forts with available costructio material iformatio is small, oly 2.4 percet, ad should ot be viewed as a stadard for the Pesylvaia forts. The results of the fort map aalysis will ow be preseted. To begi the Coloial fort will be examied. The first fort map to be examied was Fort Alle (Figure ), which has bee coded as a irregular star fort based o the presece of the half bastios or demibastios. Fort Alle is believed to have bee commissioed ad desiged by Bejami Frakli i 6 ad is thought to have measured 6,20 square feet whe completed (Huter 960: ). Figure. Represetatio of Fort Alle was draw by Bejami Frakli i 6. The structures labeled as house withi the parade groud are provided with the followig measuremets workig left to right: 8 by 20, 8 by 8 ad 20 by 20. The uits of measuremet are ot provided (Huter 960:23). Despite the small size of the fort, it is reputed to have bee a importat fort, the oly fort i Northampto Couty orth of the Blue Moutai, where talks with Native America leaders were held (Huter 960:249-20, 4). Compared to the other forts, which will be discussed i the paragraphs that follow, Fort Alle has a uique shape. The fort was arrow, rectagular, palisaded eclose about demibastios at the ed, ad cotaiig three log structures for the garriso ad its stores (Stotz 200:06). As the structures i the depictio of Fort Alle are simply labeled as house the exact uses of these structures are ope for speculatio. It appears 8

91 that the garriso statioed at Fort Alle was provided with what oe might call the basics: places to sleep, places to store supplies ad muitios, two swivel gus ad a well for drikig water. These basic fort features hit that Fort Alle was ot a fort of great military importace, meaig that the fort did ot maitai a area which if lost would have bee detrimetal to the Coloial army. Ideed soo after the fort was erected i, there was a debate as to whether the fort should be trasformed ito a tradig post, ad the fort was later positioed further south (Huter 960:249-24). By aalyzig the map of Fort Alle it ca be posited that forts of the Coloial army were provided with the basics of shelter, storehouses, artillery, ad drikig water. The locatio of the well withi oe of the half bastios suggests that the fort s desiger was attemptig to maximize space by placig the well i a area that would still allow the garriso to utilize it without it obstructig movemet withi the miimal parade groud. Ufortuately, without more iformatio about Fort Alle, further deductios about the allocatio of space for the forts of Coloial group are impossible. The secod fort that was aalyzed was Fort Veago of the British Category. This fort was coded as a irregular star fort i the database due to the presece of bastios positioed alog the four edges of the ceter structure. While it is uclear who commissioed the costructio of Fort Veago, but the costructio commeced uder Major Robert Stewart i 60. The area of the ditch surroudig the cetral structure measures,44 square feet ad the cetral structure itself measures 3,300 square feet (Figure 8), although the total square footage of fort Veago is ukow. Fort Veago was built to replace the Frech Fort Machault, which was destroyed by the Frech i the summer of 9 (Stotz 200:4). From this locatio, the British would have bee able to cotrol travel o the Paxtag path ad the Ohio River; this 9

92 ability to cotrol multiple trasportatio routes made Fort Veago a importat strategic structure. It is believed that the sigle buildig withi Fort Veago served as a two-story blockhouse that housed a garriso of 40 me with the powder magazie located i the cellar of the blockhouse guarded by ie caos (Huter 960:; Stotz 200:4). Fort Veago is the smallest irregular star fort that was aalyzed ad due to this small square footage, the small garriso, ad the sigle structure guarded by oly ie gus, it is believed that Fort Veago was ot a fort of great sigificace. With the Frech retreatig farther orth ad the military egagemets decreasig i umber withi North America with the begiig of 60 it is likely that the British army could ot justify maitaiig a large fort ad garriso i a area which was ot actively experiecig threats from the Frech or their Native America allies. Followig this reasoig, Fort Veago is ot believed to have bee a importat fort for the British army. Much like the aalysis of the use of space for Fort Alle, the miimal umber of structures associated with Fort Veago made the aalysis difficult. The relatively small parade groud was immediately oticeable but with a small garriso it could be argued that there was o eed for a large ope area withi the fort, also kow as a parade groud, which was used to allow for the garriso to maeuver withi the fort uecumbered. Remiiscet of Fort Alle agai, the fact that the garriso was quartered iside of the walls of Fort Veago spoke to the value the British army placed o the lives of their soldiers. It is uclear where the powder magazie was placed but it is likely that the fort possessed a powder magazie for the artillery. Due to the lack of further structures associated with Fort Veago, it is ot possible to make ay further ifereces about the use space i this fort. 80

93 Figure 8. Aoymous reditio of Fort Veago (Albert 96:90). The ext British fort that was aalyzed was also a irregular star fort much like Fort Veago. Fort Bedford, sometimes referred to as Fort Raystow, was classified as a irregular star fort due to the irregular shape formed by the five bastios. Fort Bedford was commissioed by Pesylvaia Goveror William Dey i 8 ad was costructed by me commaded by Brigadier Geeral Joh Forbes o his march from Philadelphia to the Frech Fort Duquese (Grat 96:8; Keedy 2004:; Weiser 896:4). Based o the map below (Figure 9), at the time of Fort Bedford s completio, it ecompassed 63,4 square feet. Durig the Frech ad Idia War, Fort Bedford was importat due to its locatio. Fort Bedford was positioed alog the Juiata River i what is preset Bedford, Pesylvaia ad durig its occupatio served as a base of supply alog Forbes Road (Keedy 2004:). Fort Bedford was also 8

94 situated at the Raystow Path ad the Warriors Path which, coupled with the close proximity of the Juiata River ad the locatio of Forbes Road, allowed the garriso statioed at the fort to cotrol a fair portio of travel through the area (Keedy 2004:8). Fort Bedford furthermore served as the base camp for Geeral Forbes army of 6000 me before Fort Ligoier was costructed later durig 8 (Keedy 2004:). Based o the map of Fort Bedford (Figure 9), oe ca see that it cotaied several structures but ufortuately the structures are ot labeled i the map. A accout recorded i Outposts of the War for Empire: The Frech ad Eglish i Wester Pesylvaia: Their Armies, Their Forts, Their People by Charles Morse Stotz provides some detail as for how the structures cotaied withi Fort Bedford were used. Stotz reports that Fort Bedford cotaied a umber of storehouses, 8 oves for cookig, ad barracks for the garriso of 8 me (Stotz 200:3, ). The 6,90 soldiers travelig with Geeral Forbes to Fort Duquese were camped outside of the fort proper (Stotz 200:3). Furthermore, located outside of Fort Bedford were the homesteads of settlers who lived i the protectio offered by the fort, two hospital buildigs, a additioal storehouse, ad two structures labeled as Pedergass, which are believed to be represet the private residece of a getlema amed Garret or Gerrard Pedergass. Although ot metioed by Stotz or labeled o the map, it is probable that Fort Bedford had a powder magazie located withi the fort to supply the artillery that would have bee ecessary to protect the fort should the garriso eed to defed the fort. Based o the large size of Fort Bedford ad the sizeable garriso coupled with the multiple trade routes that the fort cotrolled, oe may say that Fort Bedford was a importat fort. Fort importace was determied based o the umber of trade ad trasportatio etworks that a fort s strategic 82

95 locatios could cotrol i correlatio with a sizeable garriso that could move about the surroudig area. As metioed above, Fort Bedford was also strategically importat. There are several ifereces that ca be gleaed about the utilizatio of space withi ad aroud Fort Bedford. The irregular star for was orgaized i a maer which would allow for the ier structures to be located alog the palisade walls leavig the cetral area ope. This ope cetral area, or parade groud, would have bee a place of activity where supplies ad soldiers moved about from place to place. The presece of a cetral parade groud deotes that the egieers travelig with Geeral Forbes perceived that the large garriso statioed at Fort Bedford would require ample space to move aroud safely ad effectively. A umber of storehouses, barracks, cookig ove ad the umetioed powder magazie were all located withi the palisade walls so that the structures ad the items/me withi them could be protected. The placemet of these structures withi the walls deotes which aspects were importat to the British army: protectig stores ad provisios, protectig areas of food preparatio, ad protectig the lives of the me who made up the garriso. 83

96 Figure 9. Map of Fort Bedford by Joh Rocque i 63 (MHS 200a). The houses of settlers were positioed at a distace, this preveted settlers from iterferig with the fort s operatios. It is probable that the relatioship betwee the settlers ad soldiers wet two ways; the soldiers would have bee able to trade with, ad purchase goods, produced by the settlers ad the settlers foud protectio by livig ear the fort. That settlers are associated with Fort Bedford suggests several thigs: ) The coloy of Pesylvaia was still seekig to expad ito the frotier despite the ogoig war; 2) The settlers ad coloial army recogized the strategic importace of the locatio maitaied by Fort Bedford, ad 3) The settlers positioed themselves at Fort Bedford due to the protectio the garriso offered. The distace of the hospital buildigs are also of iterest here as they are positioed outside of the forts protective walls but are situated upo the fort s earthworks. It is possible that the hospitals were placed outside of the walls of Fort Bedford to limit the spread of disease as ill soldiers 84

97 could be quaratied to the hospital buildigs. This distace deotes that the ijured ad sick me were removed from the everyday fort activities. The locatio of the storehouse south of the hospitals is a cause for questio, as it is uclear what was stored i this structure. Accordig to the scale i Figure 20, the storehouse is located roughly 60 feet away from the hospitals ad roughly 260 feet from the southeaster bastio of the fort. The reasoig for this storehouse beig placed so far away from the other structures is ukow. Based o these ifereces discussed i the previous paragraph, it is clear that the larger forts of the British army were ot simply outposts of the Empire but fuctioed as a small tow that was provided with more tha just the basics (storehouses, barracks, ad powder magazie). The larger forts, which held impressive garrisos utilized to cotrol a strategic ladscape, were provided with more specialized structures, such as bake oves ad hospitals, tha the smaller forts, which cotaied a smaller garriso ad cotrolled a smaller area. The differece betwee the smaller forts ad larger forts of the British Empire appears to ot oly be i the size of the fort ad garriso, but also i the specialized structures cotaied withi the fort ad the placemet of these structures withi the forts. This tred of large British forts possessig more specialized structures is evideced i the ext fort, Fort Pitt. Fort Pitt is also classified as a irregular star fort due to the petago shape formed by its five bastios. Fort Pitt was ordered costructed late i 9 by Brigadier Geeral Joh Forbes after the Frech forces destroyed Fort Duquese ad retreated further orth, ad was costructed either by Coloel Hery Bouquet or Captai Harry Gordo from late 9 through early 6 (Dahliger 922:3; 6; Stotz 200:2). Fort Pitt was the largest fort costructed by the British army durig the Frech ad Idia War with a calculated square footage of 9,940 ad was home to the largest garriso reported, 000 me (Figure 2) (Dahliger 922:6-). 8

98 Fort Pitt was costructed at the site of Fort Duquese, which it dwarfed i size, ad was meat to cotrol the tail ed of Forbes Road i additio to portios of the Raystow Path, the Great Path, ad Veago Path. The most importat trasportatio etwork that Fort Pitt guarded was the coveted Forks of the Ohio River. While origially costructed to hold the Forks of the Ohio River agaist the Frech, it was soo realized that the Frech were o loger a threat as they had retreated from Pesylvaia ito their forts farther orth (Dahliger 922:8). Fort Pitt remaied useful; however, i protectig the developig city ad wester frotier from growig hostilities from Native America atios, which evetually developed ito Potiac s War (Dahliger 922:8). Through the examiatio of Figure 20, several iterpretatios were made about the utilizatio of space withi Fort Pitt. Fort Pitt cotaied three wells withi the fort proper, which are orgaized withi the parade groud ear structures located alog the palisade walls. Despite the close proximity to the braches of the Ohio River, the Alleghey ad Moogahela Rivers, the egieer of Fort Pitt placed three wells withi the walls of the fort. It is likely that the wells were placed iside the fort s walls to allow the me to obtai water without attemptig to draw water from the surroudig rivers, which were proe to floodig ad ope to attack (Durat 86:8; Huter 960:2). As evideced by Figure 20, Fort Pitt possessed multiple barracks, which housed the garriso. As was the case of Fort Bedford, the barracks are situated alog the palisade wall ad surroud the parade groud. The presece of the barracks iside of the fort walls reaffirms the tred suggested i the case of Fort Bedford, the British army was ivested i protectig the officers defedig the forts. Figure 20 depicts that the barracks of the elisted me, or commo soldiers, are separate from the barracks of the officers. The distictio betwee barracks for the elisted me ad the officers deotes a clear separatio of class ad rak. I the 86

99 8 th cetury, Eglish society was raked accordig to hierarchies ragig from the status of oble to laborig poor (Heyck 2008:48-49). This hierarchical system was carried ito the British military as the raked officers of the army typically came from wealthy families who could purchase a officer's commissio for their sos (Holmes 204). Rak also promoted the separatio betwee the officers ad the elisted me. I 8 th cetury armies, much as with today s moder armies there was a itetioal divisio betwee the elisted me ad officers i order to prevet problems with the chai of commad, the use of rak for persoal gais, ad the demostratio of favoritism (Borlik 998). Figure 20 depicts the powder magazie used to supply the artillery of the heavily armed fort. This powder magazie is located i the ortheaster bastio which demostrates that the egieer who desiged Fort Pitt sought to protect the powder magazie by placig it withi the fort s walls but sought to remove it from the geeral livig quarters, possibly for safety reasos. Figure 20. Map of Fort Pitt draw i 9 (MHS 200b). 8

100 Based o these ifereces, more treds explaiig how the British utilized the space withi ad aroud their forts have bee idetified. It is kow that the British army egieers placed structures such as barracks, storerooms, powder magazies ad oves withi the forts to protect these structures from eemy forces. It is also kow that hospitals appear to be removed from the geeral populatio of the garriso to prevet the spread of disease or illess. The presece of settlers ear forts also deotes that the British forts were meat to protect citizes as well as soldiers. Furthermore, larger forts ted to have more specialized buildigs ad parade grouds, which allow easier movemet withi the forts. The presece of a parade groud deotes that military egieers were cosciously plaig for the efficiet movemet of troops ad supplies. The presece of wells suggests that military egieers also plaed for easy access to drikig water for the garrisos. After the aalysis of Fort Pitt, it is kow that the commo foot soldiers were separated itetioally from the raked officers to promote order withi the garriso. The ext British fort that was aalyzed was Fort Burd. Fort Burd was a star fort based o the star shape created by the four bastios placed withi the four corers of the fort. Fort Burd was ordered costructed by Coloel Hery Bouquet ad was costructed by Coloel James Burd i 9 as part of the Forbes expeditio to take Fort Duquese (Albert 96:383). At the time of the forts' completio, it measured 9,06 square feet ad held a small garriso of 2 me (Albert 96:384). Despite the small size of the fort ad the garriso, Fort Burd is believed to have bee a importat fort as it was created to guard commuicatios betwee Fort Cumberlad (Marylad) ad Fort Pitt alog Nemacoli s Path (Huter 960:42). It is most likely due to the small size of the fort ad the miimal umber of me assiged to the garriso that Fort Burd does ot possess the wide variety of structures as see i Forts 88

101 Bedford ad Pitt. Rather, Fort Burd resembles Fort Veago i that oly oe structure is located withi the ceter of the fort (Figure 2). While the structure is simply labeled as log house, it is probable that this house served as the barracks ad storehouse for. While the cetral parade groud is missig there is ample room surroudig the log house withi the forts walls that would have allowed the garriso to maeuver efficietly withi the fort keepig with the tred that egieers of these forts plaed for the movemet of troops withi forts. The presece of a well withi Fort Burd also keeps with the tred that military egieers sought to supply their soldiers with drikig water. Figure 2. Map of Fort Burd (Albert 96:98). The sixth fort that was aalyzed was Fort Halifax, which is aother star fort. It is ot kow who commissioed to the costructio of Fort Halifax, but it is kow that the fort was 89

102 costructed i 6 by Coloel William Clapham alog the Susquehaa River (Huter 960: ). Whe Fort Halifax was completed it was reported to have occupied 2,600 square feet of lad. Despite beig situated alog the Shamoki Path, it is ulikely that Fort Halifax was a importat fort due to the brief occupatio period ad despite servig as a supply depot for the larger Fort Augusta located upriver. The exact size of the garriso resposible for Fort Halifax is ukow as the umber of me is reported to chage frequetly to meet the eeds of Fort Augusta (Huter 960:03). By examiig Figure 22, several ifereces were made about the utilizatio of space withi Fort Halifax. Fort Halifax possessed a parade groud, icludig a flag pole, which was bordered by the structures of the fort. The gate to the fort was positioed close to the guard room, which suggests that the garriso was moitorig who was comig ad goig from the fort. As with Fort Pitt, the barracks of Fort Halifax are separated ito the officer s quarters. Withi the fort walls of Fort Halifax there are several storehouses placed alogside oe of the palisade walls betwee the powder magazie ad the barracks for the elisted me. Ulike with Fort Pitt, the powder magazie of Fort Halifax is ot located withi oe of the bastios but rather alog oe of the palisade walls. Fort Halifax also cotais a well, which is located i oe of the bastios. 90

103 Figure 22. Map of Fort Halifax (Busch 896:24). Fort Augusta, aother star fort, was commissioed by Pesylvaia Goveror Robert Morris ad was costructed by Coloel William Clapham ad Major James Burd i ad measured 4,66 square feet ad held a garriso of 400 me (Huter 960:08, 0). Costructed o what was the the frotier, Fort Augusta was, i effect, the statio as well as the headquarters of the etire Augusta Regimet. From it, detachmets were set out from time to time o special duty or to garriso a lesser post; but o compay of the regimet was statioed permaetly elsewhere (Huter 960:488). Fort Augusta was a importat fort durig the 9

104 Frech ad Idia War as it guarded the access to the Susquehaa Valley from two directios: from the Alleghey River to the orthwest ad from the lad of the Six Natios i New York State to the orth (Stotz 200:0). After aalyzig Figure 23 it was decided that Fort Augusta represets the treds idetified i the previous British forts. Fort Augusta cotais withi its walls a well, located i wester bastio ad a powder magazie located i the souther bastio, which further idicates that the military egieers possessed a ideal o which structures were supposed to be eclosed withi a fort s palisade wall. The map of Fort Augusta does ot have a storehouse idicated withi the palisade wall. It is probably that oe of the may blockhouses depicted o Figure 23 also served as storage spaces. The presece of the well cotiues the idea that the garriso should have a water supply withi the cofies of the fort. The divisio of blockhouses betwee raked officers ad elisted me is further evidece that the British preferred to segregate their soldiers to prevet potetial problems betwee the differet raks withi the army. The additioal segregatio betwee the coloel s quarters ad the officer s quarters shows that the segregatio was preset withi all raks of the military. Oe aspect of Fort Augusta that was idetified i Figure 23 is the divisio of space i the chai of blockhouses positioed outside of the fort that serve to guard the Susquehaa River. The aspect of forts possessig blockhouses outside of forts is ot ucommo ad was idetified at Fort Pitt with the Fort Pitt Blockhouse (Dahliger 922:68; Grat 96:84). 92

105 Figure map of Fort Augusta (HMP 204). The last British fort that was aalyzed was Fort Ligoier, which was also a star fort. Fort Ligoier was ordered costructed by Brigadier Geeral Joh Forbes as part of his expeditio to take Fort Duquese from the Frech ad was costructed by Coloel James Burd i mid-8 (Grimm 90:0). At the time of its completio Fort Ligoier had a reported square footage of 2,224 (Huter 960:43). Durig the Frech ad Idia War, Fort Ligoier was a importat fort as it guarded a portio of Forbes Road, the Raystow Path, the Catawba Path ad the Loyalhaa River. Fort Ligoier served as the halfway poit betwee Fort Bedford ad Fort Pitt, which allowed for it to serve as a direct lie of commuicatio from Fort Pitt to the east 93

106 (Albert 96:2). Durig the peak of Fort Ligoier s activity, it is estimated that the garriso was comprised of 300 me (Albert 96:20). The aalysis for Fort Ligoier was completed by usig Figure 24 alog with iformatio cotaied withi the official guidebook for the recostructio created based o detailed archaeology that was coducted o Fort Ligoier i the 960s. Accordig to Figure 24 there were several ecampmets that surrouded Fort Ligoier durig the time of its costructio as a portio of the Forbes army waited to move towards Fort Duquese. The ecampmets were from Pesylvaia, Marylad, the Carolias ad Virgiia, i additio to the Royal Artillery ad the First Highlad Battalio. Directly associated with the exterior of the fort are two hospitals, a Native America ecampmet, a bullock pe, ad a dam for a plaed sawmill. Accordig to the Fort Ligoier Official Guidebook ad Map (Fort Ligoier Associatio 2009), also associated with the fort are a blacksmith shop, two bake oves, a smokehouse, a setry box, officers quarters ad the private quarters of Geeral Forbes. Also accordig to the Fort Ligoier Official Guidebook ad Map, the fort proper cotaied a cetral parade groud marked with a flag post surrouded by several structures. The structures cotaied withi the fort are a officer s quarters, two storehouses, a powder magazie located i oe bastio, a hospital, soldier s barracks, a armory located i a bastio, ad a officer s mess which is also located withi oe of the bastios. 94

107 Figure 24. Pla of Retreched Camp at Fort Ligoier 8 (MHS 200c). Next the two maps of the two Frech forts were aalyzed, the first of which was Fort Machault. Ufortuately, credible maps of Fort de la Presque Isle ad Fort de la Rivière au Boeuf were ot discovered which resulted i these forts ot beig cosidered withi this aalysis. As oe might expect, Fort Machault follows the star fort style developed by Vauba ad is deoted as such by the four bastios located at the four corers of the otherwise square fort. It is ukow who commissioed Fort Machault s costructio, but it is likely that it was commissioed by the Caadia Goveror Duquese ad was costructed by Captai Chabert de Jocaire i 3 (Albert 96:8). Ufortuately the exact size is ot kow ad has bee the object of some debate, although some report that the fort may have measured 3,2 square feet at the time of completio (Albert 96:86). It is ot difficult to determie how importat Fort 9

108 Machault was durig its occupatio. Fort Machault was located o the Paxtag Path ad was oly. miles from miles from the Ohio River. Due to its locatio, the fort cotrolled trasportatio dow the Ohio River from Fort de la Presque Isle towards Fort Duquese i additio to cotrollig travel alog the Veago Path. I his 960 publicatio, Huter states that Fort Machault was sigificat to the Frech, so much so that the Frech Fort de la Rivière Au Boeuf declied i importace after Fort Machault was costructed (Huter 960:92). The aalysis of Fort Machault was completed by examiig Figure 2. The first importat aspect that was oticed was the large umber of barracks withi the fort. There are five structures withi Fort Machault that have bee labeled with the letter, b, that is represetative of Barracks 2 story high with stoe chimey (Figure 2). These structures were positioed aroud the orth, south, ad west palisade walls ad oe was located i the orthwest bastio. Outside of Fort Machault were several structures that are labeled as barracks ad barracks for soldiers located to the orth side of the Ohio River ad to the south side of the river ad fort. Oddly, oe of these barracks are labeled as the officers quarters or coloel s quarters. Although ot represeted i Figure 2 it is probable that the Frech Army utilized segregated barracks just as the British Army did, sice the officers ad elisted me were of differig classes (Starkey 2003:). Also outside of the fort appears a saw mill alog oe of the smaller rivers. Withi Fort Machault there is also a structure labeled as a powder magazie located withi the southwester bastio. There are two types of structures which do ot appear o the map of Fort Machault: hospitals ad storehouses. While it is ulikely that Fort Machault did ot possess a storehouse i which to protect provisios ad other materials ad a hospital to ted to the ill or wouded oe must woder at why these structures these structures are ot represeted o the map used withi this study. It is possible that the idividual who drew the map did ot 96

109 feel that these buildig types warrated beig placed o a map of the fort. The absece of a structure labeled as a storehouse ad hospital has also occurred o the maps of some British forts, such as Fort Veago. Figure 2. Map of Fort Machault (Bell 890:48). The secod Frech fort aalyzed was Fort Duquese. Fort Duquese, followig the style of Fort Machault, was a star fort as deoted by the four bastios at the four corers of the fort. Fort Duquese was commissioed by Caadia Goveror Duquese ad was completed by Captai Fraçois le Mercier i 4 stadig alog the Forks of the Ohio ecompassig 6,400 square feet (Huter 960:9). Fort Duquese was positioed i a strategic locatio; oe could 9

110 argue a key locatio, withi what was to become wester Pesylvaia. Fort Duquese was placed o the Forks of the Ohio River ad was also situated at the Raystow Path, the Great Path ad the Veago Path. Give the close proximity Fort Duquese was to these trasportatio etworks it becomes clear that Fort Duquese was a fort of extreme importace for the Frech util it was destroyed i 8 by Frech forces with the approach of Geeral Forbes forces (Stotz 200:8). The aalysis of Fort Duquese was completed by examiig Figure 26; the degree of detail preseted i the map allowed for several aspects to be idetified about how the Frech utilized space withi this fort, excludig the platforms for specific artillery. Oe of the first aspects to be oticed about Fort Duquese was that there was a cetral parade groud devoid of structures which would have allowed the garriso to move about the fort s iterior freely. As was expected there was a segregatio of the garriso as evideced by the specific quarters throughout the fort s iterior. The captai s quarters were separated from the officer s quarters which were additioally segregated from the quarters of the regular soldiers. This segregatio of the garriso deotes that the Frech military reflected the ideals of a hierarchical social system which sought to keep separate those who were wealthy ad those who were ot (Holmes 204). It is possible that the garriso ate together though separated socially or that the officers ad elisted me did ot eat their meals at the same time. Additioally, Fort Duquese had specific quarters for the priso warde, located alog the wester palisade wall i the same structure as a storage room ad the distributio area, ad the Chapli, whose quarters were located with the officer s quarters. With the presece of these additioal quarters, it could be suggested that the Frech held the positio of priso warde ad Chapli i high regard. 98

111 Figure 26. Map of Fort Duquese i Frech 4. Traslatios were completed by Stephaie Showalter (Stotz 200:82). A latrie is also oted o the map i the southwester bastio. Furthermore, located withi Fort Duquese s walls is a storage room, a forge, a bakery, a powder magazie ad a priso, all of which are withi the bastios of the fort. These structures deote the degree of 99

112 specializatio, which may have bee typical for a large Frech fort with direct access to multiple routes of trasportatio. The presece of a priso also deotes that the Frech were capable of discipliig members of the garriso that acted poorly ad could have bee takig prisoers of war as the Frech ad Idia War progressed. Additioally, there are several structures located outside of Fort Duquese s walls, such as a eatig area ad the iterpreter s quarters. The fort s hospital, surgeo s quarters, ad a additioal storage room were also located outside of Fort Duquese s palisade walls, which could have served to keep illesses ad disease from spreadig throughout the fort if ill soldiers could be isolated to a area outside of the fort proper. Research Objective 3: Use the typology to examie the variability amog 8 th cetury forts, ad examie how these variatios relate to treds i 8 th cetury society ad techology. I order to aswer Research Objective 3 it was ecessary to aalyze the forts located outside of the Commowealth of Pesylvaia. Oce the aalysis for the o-pesylvaia forts were was completed it was possible to examie 8 th cetury fort variability ad determie how these variatios were tied to 8 th cetury society ad techology. To aalyze the o-pesylvaia forts, for the sake of cohesiveess, the comparisos betwee the groups of the Frech ad Idia War- the British, Frech, Coloial govermets ad private idividuals- located outside of the state of Pesylvaia were aalyzed ad compared by the same methods used to aalyze the forts located withi Pesylvaia. All idetified treds will be discussed i detail i the followig paragraphs i a attempt to uderstad the huma behaviors which developed them. After the treds for each group are aalyzed ad compared, the treds of the Pesylvaia ad the o-pesylvaia forts will be compared i a attempt to obtai a clear uderstadig of 8 th cetury fort variability. Additioally, after the compariso of treds for all the forts of the 8 th 00

113 cetury had bee compared these treds will be examied i terms of their techological ad societal implicatios. The first step i the compariso betwee the groups of the o-pesylvaia forts (Appedix C) was to examie how the average fort sizes compared to oe aother. As with the Pesylvaia forts, a Pearso s chi-squared test was applied to the square footage of forts with a kow square footage to determie if the square footages were statistically sigificat. The results of the Pearso s chi-squared, p=0.3, showed that the square footages were ot sigificatly differet, however the sample size was small as oly 22 out of total forts had available square footage iformatio. To examie the square footage iformatio, the averages were oce agai utilized to determie if treds existed i square footages of each fort by group (Table 9). Table 9. Average Square Footage Measuremets of No-Pesylvaia Forts British 8,00 Frech 69,046 Coloial 8,00 As with the Frech ad Idia War forts of Pesylvaia, the average square footage of British forts demostrates that the British costructed the largest forts. The average square footage of the Frech forts places them secod, followed by the Coloial forts. There was o available square footage iformatio o the Private forts to compare to the forts of the other groups. These results were expected sice the British forts withi the database possess large square footages. For example, Fort Niagara is reported to have measured 449,2 square feet, ad Fort Crow Poit measured 362,46 square feet. The Frech forts withi the database are 0

114 also large, but do ot surpass the largest British forts i size; Fort Michilimackiac measured 0,32 square feet ad Fort Beauséjour measured 90,684 square feet. It should be oted here that the largest fort that was ecoutered throughout this study was the Frech Fortress of Louisbourg located i Nova Scotia. The Fortress of Louisbourg was excluded from the database ad all aalysis due to the ature of the fort. Louisbourg was ot a fort i the traditioal sese i that a large area (calculated to have bee upwards of 3,000,000 square feet), i this case a peisula, which cotaied a smaller fortificatio structure that was the further fortified through the erectio of walls i the surroudig area i order to keep eemies away. The oly Coloial fort which had a reported square footage was that of Fort Ashby, which measured 8,00. As with the case of the Pesylvaia forts, it should be oted here that the data withi the o- Pesylvaia fort database, there is a potetial bias as some forts have gaps i iformatio. Withi the database for the o-pesylvaia forts, there is a total of forts, of which oly 22 have available square footage iformatio. Two figures were created i a attempt to compare fort square footages to determie if the results of the averages preseted withi Table 9 depict ay biases (Figure 2 ad 28). Figure 2 depicts the square footage averages with the removal of the outlier, Fort Detroit, while Figure 28 depicts the square footage averages with the outlier preset. The bar graph created i Figure 2 was examied i a attempt to ascertai which group was costructig the largest forts based o the plottig of all 22 forts with kow square footages. The largest British fort i the sample was Fort Niagara at almost 40,000 square feet. The largest Frech fort was Fort Michilimackiac measurig just over 00,000 square feet, followed by the oly Coloial fort, Fort Ashby. 02

115 Compariso of Square Footages of Frech ad Idia War Forts 00,000 40, ,000 30, ,000 20, ,000 0,000 00,000 0,000 0 Figure 2. Square footages for No-Pesylvaia forts with outlier removed. Forts marked i red are forts of British group, forts i blue are Frech i group, ad the fort marked i gree is Coloial i group. Figure 28. Square footages for No-Pesylvaia forts with outlier preset. Forts marked i red are forts of British group, forts i blue are Frech i group, ad the fort marked i gree is Coloial i group. 03

116 Followig the method of the Pesylvaia forts, descriptive statistics were used to coduct a compariso betwee the pla ad layout of the forts by group to discover treds of which group preferred which pla ad layout. The result of the frequecy distributio, which was used to determie the degree to which groups relied heavily o those styles created by Vauba will also be preseted here. Based o the iformatio preseted i Table 0, it is clear that the British favored star forts above ay other style ad that these star forts teded to be the largest forts costructed by this group. The British also built a umber of irregular star forts, which o average were quite large as well. Stockade forts were utilized by the British but at a lesser scale tha the star forts or irregular star forts ad ted to be smaller tha the previous two styles. There is a small umber of forts whose pla ad layout were ot kow, which is also represeted i Table 0. Therefore, there is a tred amog the British to costruct star forts over ay other style. This tred was expected by the author based upo the results from the Pesylvaia fort aalysis, ad the fact that the British were adoptig Vauba s style of fortificatio (Muller 4). Table 0. Pla ad Layout Compared with Average Square Footage for British Forts 9 Star Forts 2,83 square feet Irregular Star Forts 02,98 square feet 3 Stockade Fort 2,20 square feet 2 Ukow Pla ad Layout ukow square feet Much like their British rivals, the Frech relied heavily o the style of star forts for their fortificatios, as idicated by Table. The Frech costructed more star forts tha ay other style of fort, which were typically smaller tha the less popular irregular start forts. The Frech 04

117 also utilized stockade styled forts that teded to be quite large ad were larger tha the stockade style forts costructed by the British. There was a small umber of forts whose pla ad Table. Pla ad Layout Compared with Average Square Footage for Frech Forts Star Forts 8,86 square feet 2 Irregular Star Forts 0,32 square feet Stockade Fort 3,9 square feet Ukow Pla ad Layout ukow square feet layout were ot kow, which is also represeted i Table. It ca be stated here that the Frech teded to costruct primarily star forts but that these forts were eclipsed by the size of the irregular star forts. It was expected by the author that the Frech would primarily costruct star forts, which were iveted by Vauba as Vauba was himself Frech. Coloial egieers also utilized star forts as their primary style of fortificatio with two of the four forts costructed by Coloial govermets beig star forts. The Coloial military also costructed irregular star forts ad stockaded forts but it is ot kow how large these forts may have bee sice o square footage iformatio survives i regard to these fort styles. There is a tred amog the Coloial egieers to rely o the star fort style, which ca easily be explaied by the relatioship betwee the Coloial military ad the British military. Of the Coloial forts icluded withi the o-pesylvaia typology, oly oe fort possessed square footage iformatio, Fort Ashby, which measured 8,00 square feet. Withi the square footage aalysis, Fort Ashby was utilized i a attempt to compare square footage sizes. However, the square footage of Fort Ashby used i the aalysis is ot a represetative of all Coloial forts. Table 2 was created to determie the degree to which the differig group s active durig this time period relied upo pla ad layout styles created by Vauba. It was determied that 0

118 Vauba-ispiratio was high i forts costructed by the British, Frech ad Coloial govermets with miimal Vauba-ispiratio see i forts costructed by private idividuals. The degree to which the Coloial military relied o other styles of forts is higher tha the degree to which the Frech ad British relied o other fort styles. It is possible that the Coloial group forts experieced a wider rage i fort styles ad plas due to the degree of iexperiece the Coloial military egieers possessed i costructig forts. It is probable that Coloial egieers with miimal fort costructig experiece would have costructed the larger forts which have bee attributed to Vauba. This could explai why there is more variability amog the Coloial group forts. Table 2. Degree of Vauba Ispiratio by Fort Egieer Group British Vauba Ispiratio 24 No-Vauba Ispiratio 3 Ukow Ispiratio 2 Frech Vauba Ispiratio 3 No-Vauba Ispiratio 0 Ukow Ispiratio Coloial Vauba Ispiratio 3 No-Vauba Ispiratio Private Vauba Ispiratio No-Vauba Ispiratio 2 The tred of less depedecy upo Vauba s style of forts is also see i the forts costructed by private idividuals, as evideced by Table 2. This tred mimics that of the 06

119 Pesylvaia forts where Vauba-ispiratio was miimal. It is likely that the idividual settlers ad commuities that costructed these forts lacked formal fort costructio traiig, which resulted i forts favorig styles ot associated with Vauba s style to be utilized. Withi the o-pesylvaia forts oly oe fort, Fort Vause of Virgiia, was modeled after Vauba i a irregular star fort shape. The other two Private forts, Fort Seybert ad Edward s Fort of West Virgiia, were both simple stockade forts without the bastios made popular by Vauba. As with the aalysis of the Pesylvaia forts, a aalysis was udertake to determie what degree locatio ad distace to water affected fort size. I the Pesylvaia aalysis, this sectio also utilized the attributes of distace to kow military roads ad distace to kow Native America pathways. Ufortuately, it was ot possible to compare the locatio of the o-pesylvaia forts to the distace to kow pathways or military roads as o comprehesive iformatio could be foud o pathways or roads outside of the state of Pesylvaia. This aalysis of locatio ad fort size focused o the forts' distace to kow waterways. Withi the database created for this sectio of the project, there are forts, of which oly 46 have kow locatios. Keepig with the Pesylvaia aalysis, all forts with kow locatios from the British, Frech, Coloial ad private groups were mapped (Figure 29). 0

120 Figure 29. No-Pesylvaia Forts. The distace ad locatio iformatio were used to create Table 3, which was i tur utilized to determie the degree that locatio combied with distace to water affected fort size. All the distaces to water i Table 3 were measured i ArcMap after the forts had bee mapped oto a USGS.-miute topographic base map. Oe tred that became apparet after examiig Table 3 was the close proximity of these forts to a source of water with most forts beig withi oe mile of water. O average the British forts represeted i Table 3 were 0.2 miles away from the earest source of water. The Frech forts of Table 3 are o average 0.20 miles away from water. The Coloial forts of Table 3 are o average 0.06 miles from water ad the forts costructed by private idividuals were foud to be 0.2 miles from water. 08

121 Table 3. No-Pesylvaia Forts with Miles to Water Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fort Size Distace to Water i Miles Fort Cavedish ukow Mississippi River -.03 Fort Bute ukow Amite River-.0, Machac River -.0 Fort New Richmod ukow Mississippi River-.33 Fort Cumberlad 64,000 Wills Creek -.04 Fort Frederick,2 Potomac River -. Fort Michilimackiac 0,32 Lake Michiga -.0 Fort at Number Four 43,4 Coecticut River -.08 Fort Ae (Fort A) ukow Halfway Creek-.02 Fort Brewerto 230,400 Oeida River -.08 Fort Bull 36,864 Wood Creek-.0 Fort Crow Poit 362,46 Lake Champlai -6 Fort Niagara (Old) 449,2 Lake Otario-.06, Niagara River-.0 Fort Otario ukow Lake Otario -.0 Fort Oswego ukow Oswego River-.08 Fort Stawix 4,496 Mohawk River-.20 Fort Ticoderoga 63,6 Lake Champlai -. Fort William Hery 8,6 Lake George-.0 Fort Wood Creek ukow Wood Creek-.0 Fort Dobbs 2,20 Fourth Creek -.49 Fort Loudou 8,3 Thompso Islad Shoals -.0 Fort Vause 2,424 Sprig Brach of Roaoke River -.08 Fort Frederick ukow Atlatic Ocea -.0 Fort Cumberlad 90,684 Bay of Fudy -.6 Fort George ukow Atlatic Ocea -. Fort Sait-Jea ukow Rivière Richelieu -.0 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name Fort Size i Distace to Water i Miles Square Feet Fort de Chartres ukow Mississippi River -.03 Fort de L'Ascesio ukow Ohio River-.04 Fort Massiac 30,382 Ohio River-.04 Fort Detroit 9,2,42 Detroit River -.33 Fort Michilimackiac 0,32 Lake Michiga -.0 Fort Carillo ukow Lake Champlai -. 09

122 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name Fort Size i Distace to Water i Miles Square Feet Fort Frédéric 3,9 Lake Champlai-.03 Frech Castle ukow Lake Otario-.06, Niagara River-.0 Fort la Reie ukow Assiiboie River -. Fort Maurepas ukow Wiepeg River -.08 Fort Beauséjour 90,684 Bay of Fudy -.6 Fort Gaspareaux ukow Northumberlad Strait -.0 Fort Froteac (the Fourth) 23,693 Kigsto Bay -.0 Fort Rouillé ukow Lake Otario -.0 Fort Sait-Jea ukow Rivière Richelieu -.0 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fort Size Distace to Water i Miles Fort Price George ukow i the Keowee River Fort Ashby 8,00 Prairie Ru -.08 Fort Buttermilk ukow South Brach of Potomac River -.0 Fort Pleasat ukow Aderso Ru -.0 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Fort Size Distace to Water i Miles Fort Vause ukow Sprig Brach of Roaoke River -.08 Edward's Fort ukow Cacapo River -.6 To maitai uiformity withi the aalyses, the attribute of costructio materials was also examied i a attempt to further the compariso betwee the groups of the Frech ad Idia War located outside of Pesylvaia. It was expected by the author that the forts would be predomiately costructed out of wood as this is a commo resource foud withi the Mid- Atlatic ad Easter states. Withi the database, costructio materials were kow for 33 out of forts, or 60 percet. Of the 60 percet, percet of the forts were costructed out of wood; 24 percet of the forts were costructed out of stoe; 0.06 percet of forts were costructed out of earth; ad 2 percet of the forts were costructed out of a combiatio of earth ad wood (Table 4). As Table 4 shows, all groups utilized wood for their fort 0

123 costructio with the British costructig the most forts completely out of wood. The Coloial ad Private forts do ot have ay other costructio material reported except wood. The Frech ad British are the oly groups that utilized other costructio materials for their forts. Both the Frech ad British used stoe i equal amouts, which suggested that stoe was also a favored costructio material from this time. Oly the British, however, utilizig ot oly earth but a combiatio of earth ad timber to costruct forts. This suggests that the British utilized a wider variety of costructio materials for their forts tha the other groups active durig the Frech ad Idia War. Table 4. Fort Costructio Materials by Group Frech 2 wood 4 stoe wood British 4 stoe 2 earth 2 earth ad wood Coloial Private 2 wood 2 wood Maitaiig the format of the Pesylvaia aalysis, the results of the fort maps will ow be preseted. As with the aalysis of the Pesylvaia forts, the forts utilized withi this portio of the aalysis were chose based o the availability of a fort map or pla. Forts that had a map or pla were used to aalyze how the forts were iterally structured. The British Fort Bull ad the Fort at Number 4 were aalyzed first. Fort Bull, is coded as a star fort (Figure 30) ad was costructed by the British i May of to protect the Oeida Carry located betwee

124 Scheectady ad Oswego i New York (Hagerty 92:2; Haigs 2006:30-306). It was ordered costructed by Goveror Shirley ad was built at the commad of Major Geeral Johso ad had a calculated square footage of 36,864 square feet (Hagerty 92:2-26). Fort Bull was reported as beig importat because of the geographic area it cotrolled, the Oeida Carry, which separated the Mohawk River ad Wood Creek, was cosidered a major water route betwee New York City ad Caada i what is ow the city of Rome, New York (Hagerty 92:2). Aalyzig the use of space for Fort Bull was slightly challegig as the oly image of Fort Bull is a 6 map completed by a Frech soldier (Figure 30). The script o the map was ot completely legible, but some of the script was able to be traslated. Withi the walls of Fort Bull, the British costructed four buildigs alog three of the four palisade walls. The Frech map has these structures labeled as powder magazies (B) ad barracks (D). This shows that the British sought to protect the garriso ad the powder ecessary to serve the artillery that protected the fort. While o structures are labeled as storage o the Frech map, it is likely that a portio of these buildigs were devoted to storig food supplies ad other items which the garriso would require. There are o other structures located withi the fort, which suggests that Fort Bull was outfitted with what the author cosiders the basics: barracks, store rooms, ad a powder magazie. Fort Bull also possesses a cetral parade groud, which deotes active space, a area where the garriso ad supplies ca move about withi the forts' walls. 2

125 Figure 30. This 6 Frech rederig of Fort Bull deotes items labeled with a B (BB) as powder magazies ad structures labeled with D (DD) as barracks (Hagerty 92:6). Outside of the walls of Fort Bull were two additioal structures that have bee labeled o the Frech map but ufortuately the key was illegible. Whatever the purpose of these structures, it is possible that the British army did ot feel the eed to expad the forts resources to protect them as they are located outside of the fort walls ad do ot appear to be located o ay earthworks which would have bee defedable by the garriso. The secod British fort that was examied was that of the irregular star fort kow as the Fort at Number 4 draw by Joh Mayard i July of 46 (Figure 3). The people of Charlesto, New Hampshire determied to costruct the Fort at Number 4 i 46 durig a dispute with eighborig coloy Massachusetts over boudary lies (Sauderso 86:3). It is believed that the Fort at Number 4 was costructed by Coloel Joh Stoddard ad that the fort measured 43,4 square feet (Sauderso 86:9). Durig the Frech ad Idia War, the Fort 3

126 at Number 4 protected the New Hampshire frotier alog the Merrimac ad Coecticut Rivers with a garriso of 60 me uder the commad of Coloel Joseph Blachard (Sauderso 86:9). The Fort at Number 4 was positioed alog the Merrimac ad Coecticut Rivers, which would have allowed the garriso to cotrol trasportatio alog portios of these two rivers. Additioally, the Fort at Number 4 served as a outpost alog New Hampshire s wester frotier which would have made the fort importat durig the Frech ad Idia War. Like the aalysis of Fort Bull, the use of space aalysis for the Fort at Number 4 was complicated by illegible plas ad maps. Withi the map the structures cotaied withi the fort walls are labeled by the idividuals who resided i the structure. While o structures are labeled as beig a powder magazie or a storage house, it is probable that these structures existed withi the Fort at Number 4. It is thought that the structure labeled as Grat Chamber could have bee a multipurpose structure, which could have housed the chapel, storage room ad barracks (The Fort at Number 4 204). Oe tred that is otable about the Fort at Number 4 is the cetral parade groud that was also oted i Fort Bull. This deotes that Coloel Joh Stoddard shared a similar idea as Major Geeral Johso. Aother tred that was idetified while examiig the map of the Fort at Number 4 was the segregatio of raked military officials from the geeral populatio of the garriso. This is deoted by the presece of quarters labeled as beig a captai s quarters. Aother tred associated with the Fort at Number 4 is that of wells beig located withi the forts walls, which would have offered fresh water to the garriso withi the safety of the fort. 4

127 Figure map of Fort at Number 4 by Joh Mayard (The Fort at No ). Structures exist outside of the Fort at Number 4 s walls; however, these structures are ot clearly labeled. It is possible that two of the structures could be a bar ad a house, but the other buildigs remai uclear. As with the case of Fort Bull, these structures were deemed ecessary as the builders of the fort costructed them, however, it is possible that the British did ot feel the eed to exert extra force to protect these structures with the forts walls. Aother possibility for the presece of these structures is that they were costructed by idividuals ot associated with the fort. The results of the map aalyses for the Frech forts will ow be preseted. The first Frech fort that was examied was Fort Detroit, which was classified as a irregular star fort. Fort Detroit is believed to have bee a importat fort based o its close proximity to the Detroit

128 River ad alog the straits that coected Lakes Erie ad Huro (Coway ad Jamroz 200:0). Fort Detroit was costructed o orders by Jerome Phelypeaux, whom severed as the Frech Naval Miister, ad was built by Captai Atoie de la Mothe Cadillac i 0 ad had a calculated square footage of 9,2,43 square feet (Coway ad Jamroz 200:0). Fort Detroit was cotrolled by the Frech util it was surredered to the British at the ed of the Frech ad Idia War by the Frech Goveror Pierre Fracois de Riguard, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagal (Coway ad Jamroz 200:2). To aalyze the usage of space withi Fort Detroit, Figure 32, the same map from which the fort size was calculated, was used. The utilizatio of space withi Fort Detroit is uusual i that there are streets located withi the fort, such as Sait Joseph Road. Although the historical documetatio states that a settlemet, Village at the Straits (Ville de Troit), was located ear Fort Detroit, o metio is made of the settlemet beig located withi the fort (Coway ad Jamroz 200:0). Upo cosultig a map of the city of Detroit it was foud that the streets amed withi Figure 33 are curret streets withi the city of Detroit. That the Ville de Troit may have bee located withi the cofies of Fort Detroit s curtai walls deotes that Fort Detroit is similar to two other Frech fortificatio structures ot cotaied withi this thesis. The structures of Forts Detroit ad Quebec i additio to the Fortress at Louisbourg were uique features withi the Frech military strategies which are actually fortified settlemets. The settlemets of Ville de Troit, Quebec ad Louisbourg were eclosed behid curtai walls ad also cotaied a structure similar to a fort called a citadel which served as military headquarters withi the settlemet (Coway ad Jamroz 200:0; Kaufma ad Kaufma 200:9, 83-84). Despite the streets preset withi Fort Detroit, the fort possesses basic structures. The structure labeled as A is the commadat s quarters, the structure labeled as B at the left ed of Sait 6

129 Ae Street is the guard house, the structure labeled as C is the church, D is the powder magazie, ad E is the armory. No barracks are labeled o the fort map, but this could possibly be explaied by the soldiers livig i the smaller structures located alog the streets withi Fort Detroit. There are umerous other structures located withi the fort, but they are ot labeled. Located outside of Fort Detroit there was a butcher s shop ad a area labeled as the Kig s Garde. The presece of a butcher s shop deotes the possibility of aimals beig kept withi the fort or village which would have fed the garriso ad settlers. Historical documetatio suggests that a Kig s Garde was a vegetable garde that supplemeted the diet of the garrisos statioed at permaet posts (Steves ad Ket 940:23; 26). While Fort Detroit is the first map to depict a garde it is kow that gardes were ot uique features at forts durig the Frech ad Idia War. A garde for feedig the garriso was recorded at Fort Pitt (James ad Stotz 200:2). Figure 32. Map of Fort Detroit completed i 63 (Gyetyai 204).

130 The last fort map that was examied is that of Fort Froteac (26-8), which is classified as a star fort. The fourth Fort Froteac, preceded by three other forts i various locatios, is believed to have bee costructed by Chaussegros de Léry i 26, but it is ot kow who commissioed the fort (Babits ad Gadulla 203:204). The size of Fort Froteac upo its completio was 23,693 square feet. Fort Froteac was a importat fort durig the Frech ad Idia War due to its strategic locatio. Fort Froteac served as a major hub i the Frech commuicatios etwork with the forts o the wester frotier (Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:82-83). The locatio of the fort, at the easter ed of Lake Otario allowed the fort to cotrol the lake s orther shore i additio to maagig the St. Lawrece River, which provided the Frech commad over the trasportatio alog these waterways. With access to Lake Otario, the garriso of Fort Froteac could easily patrol the waters ad maeuver me ad supplies to areas coected to the lake. Whe Fort Froteac fell to the British o August 2, 8, the Frech commuicatio lies were severed, which was a cotributig factor i the cessatio of Frech hostilities withi North America. Several aspects of the utilizatio of space at Fort Froteac became evidet after examiig ad traslatig Figure 33. The first aspect that was oticed is the large parade groud. Due to the size of the parade groud, it was iitially believed by the author that Fort Froteac would have bee outfitted with the basic structures of a powder magazie, barracks ad storage house ad othig more. However, other structures were preset. Alog the right palisade wall, there is a structure labeled as a guard house i additio to aother structure labeled as a forge. Alog the orther palisade wall, there is a structure labeled as a chapel ad possibly two storage rooms ad a barracks. Accordig to Figure 34, also icluded withi the fort, is a structure labeled as the house for the idigeous traders located i the southeaster corer of the 8

131 fort, ext to what could potetially be barracks. Located outside of Fort Froteac s protective palisade walls were several structures ad areas that deote that Fort Froteac was a importat fort with additioal specialized structures. Figure 33 depicts three areas which are labeled as beig the lodgigs or cabis of idigeous peoples located to the orth, east, ad south of Fort Froteac. Figure 33 also shows that Fort Froteac possessed stables located orth of the fort. Additioally, Figure 33 shows that Fort Froteac was outfitted with two gardes, oe small ad oe large, which were probably used as vegetable gardes. As metioed above, forts of the 8 th cetury were kow to have vegetable gardes to supplemet the diets of the garriso (James ad Stotz 200: 2, 84, 86). Figure 34 shows additioal structures outside of the walls of Fort Froteac, which iclude a large military storehouse ad a aval storehouse to the east of the fort. Figure map of Fort Froteac the Fourth (Mappig the Frech Empire i North America d). 9

132 Figure 34. Map of Fort Froteac possibly by Joh Roque 63 (MHS 200d). Ufortuately, the small umber of forts aalyzed here did ot provide results as strog as those ecoutered withi the Pesylvaia forts. However, these treds will be examied as a whole by group i Chapter. Additioally, the degree of ifluece that 8 th cetury societal ad techological treds had o the costructio of forts durig the Frech ad Idia War will also be discussed i Chapter. 20

133 CHAPTER INTERPREATIONS The results ad iterpretatios of this thesis will ow be preseted. Each research objective will be preseted followed by the results ad iterpretatios for the research objectives idividually. Research Objective : Develop a typology of Pesylvaia forts datig to the mid to late 8 th cetury. As metioed i the previous chapter, the typology was created based o the results of a qualitative aalysis based o the iformatio cotaied withi the database. The results showed that the attribute of group was commoly associated with the other attributes of the database. As a result the typology was created based o the group of the egieer of a fort. This led to the creatio of seve types: Type ) British; Type 2) Frech; Type 3) Coloial- that is forts costructed o orders by a coloial govermet idepedet of the British army; Type 4) Private- forts which were costructed by a idividual who was ot associated with a coloial militia or army ad was ot affiliated with the British army; Type ) Pesylvaia forts which were costructed by private Pesylvaia citizes withi the Wyomig Valley; Type 6) Coecticutia- forts which were costructed by Coecticut settlers withi the Wyomig Valley; ad Type ) America- forts costructed o orders of the Cotietal Cogress or geerals withi the America army (Appedix B). Forts that had a split group, such as British/Coloial, were determied to either be British or Coloial idepedetly based o the idividual who oversaw the costructio of the fort rather the degree of military egieerig experiece the idividual possessed- ad the purpose for costructio. If the idividual credited with drawig the plas for the fort ad/or the egieer who oversaw costructio of the fort was affiliated with a coloial militia but the fort was later 2

134 utilized by the British army, the fort was classified as beig Coloial. A example of a fort with split group is Fort Lyttelto located ear preset-day Fort Littleto, Pesylvaia. Fort Lyttelto was costructed o orders of Pesylvaia s Goveror Morris ad was costructed by George Crogha i (Stotz 200:0; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8). Durig the five year occupatio, Fort Lyttelto was garrisoed by Pesylvaia troops util the Forbes campaig of 8 where the fort was home to a portio of Geeral Forbes army before cotrol of the fort was later passed back to the Pesylvaia coloial militia i 9 (Huter 960:40-4). Research Objective 2: Coduct a compariso betwee all groups of forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War. As discussed i Chapter 4, Research Objective 2 was chaged to coicide with the typology created for Research Objective. The results ad iterpretatios preseted withi this sectio focus o the compariso coducted betwee the differig groups of the fort egieers ivolved withi this coflict, icludig Frech, British, Pesylvaia Coloial, ad private idividuals. The aalysis o fort size shows that the forts costructed by a member of the British Army with egieerig traiig were the largest forts withi Pesylvaia. A possible explaatio for the large size of the forts costructed by British military persoel is the ature of the war durig the time the forts were beig costructed. The earliest fort costructed by the British military was Fort Augusta, which was costructed i. The British Army at this time was begiig the process of providig aid for the coloy of Pesylvaia ad by doig so shifted the war from that of a series of frotier skirmishes to a war of positio ad defesive fortificatio with the sole purpose of obtaiig strategic locatios with importace to the British crow (Levy 984:224; Vauba 968:3). The Frech, o the other had, were foud to have costructed smaller forts located alog the wester waterways of Pesylvaia. It is kow that 22

135 the Frech costructed their forts prior to the British, before formal declaratios of war were made by the British or the Pesylvaia Coloial govermet, which could have resulted i smaller forts, which were meat for a frotier coflict rather tha a war with Britai. I tur, the forts costructed by Pesylvaia coloials were foud to be smaller tha the Frech Fort Duquese. This is most likely due to miimal kowledge of egieerig, ad the small umber of structures erected by the coloials that met the defiitio of fort, which was used withi this study. The square footage iformatio for the fort costructed by private idividuals was ot available for compariso, as was oted i Chapter 4. Withi the database, there exist gaps where the iformatio is ukow about certai forts. This missig iformatio has affected the data by providig a icomplete image of the fort sizes. The square footage averages represet 3 forts, of which oly have kow square footage iformatio. It is possible that this bias was fueled by those who studied Pesylvaia s forts previously. Earlier archaeologists ad researchers could have bee attracted to forts which were figured so promietly withi Pesylvaia s history, such as Fort Pitt, Fort Duquese, Fort Halifax, ad Fort Ligoier. Forts that were ot highlighted by history could have bee recorded as simply existig with o further ivestigatio through historical records or the archaeological record takig place. As a result, this created gaps withi the available records ad iadvertetly biased the iformatio available for future researchers. A aalysis coducted to determie which pla ad layout styles were favored by the various groups of fort costructors i correlatio with fort size was also coducted i a attempt to determie the degree of Vauba-ispiratio o these idividuals. It was foud that the British relied heavily upo the styles created by Vauba, with 3 percet of forts costructed by British military egieers beig either star forts or irregular star forts. It was foud that the largest forts 23

136 costructed by the British were irregular star forts, which could come i a variety of shapes with multiple bastios. These large forts, such as Fort Pitt ad Fort Bedford, were modified from the traditioal star fort patter i order to maitai the locatios they were costructed to defed. The Frech were foud to utilize the star fort pla ad layout developed by Vauba. The forts costructed by the Pesylvaia Coloial govermet were also foud to favor the styles of Vauba, with 8 percet of these forts followig the irregular star fort pla ad layout. The irregular star forts costructed by coloial egieers were comparable i size to the star forts costructed by the Frech. The oly group that was ot foud to favor the pla ad layout styles developed by Vauba was those forts costructed by private idividuals who favored stockade forts ad other fortified structures rather tha buildig forts mimickig Vauba. This is most likely due to the lack of formal egieer traiig possessed by private idividuals ad low literacy rates amogst lower classed idividuals durig this time period. Bor of a eed to protect idividual people, the forts of Private group do ot follow the treds that ca be see i the forts of the British, Frech, ad Coloial groups. Several treds ca be see i the forts of the other groups, of which iclude a reliace o the pla ad layout styles coceived by Vauba. While the ifluece of Vauba is strogest amog the forts of the Frech group, which was expected sice Vauba himself was a Frechma, the same ifluece has bee idetified i the forts of the British ad Coloial groups. Aother tred that ca be idetified withi the square footage of the plas ad layouts of these groups is that of the size of the forts. O the idividual level of the groups, the star forts ted to be smaller tha the irregular star forts. The average of star forts for the British ad Frech forts is 9,2 square feet. The square footage average for all irregular star forts for the British ad Coloial groups is 28,390 square feet. The average square footage for the square 24

137 forts of the British ad Coloial forts is 2,2. The average square footage for the stockade forts of the British, Coloial ad private forts is 4,882. This differece betwee the average square footages ad the idividual square footages ca possibly be explaied by the larger umber of star forts costructed durig the Frech ad Idia War withi the state of Pesylvaia. Withi the database there are 3 idetified star forts ad oly seve idetified irregular star forts. As a result of the aalysis coducted to examie the degree that locatio affected attributes such as size, distace to water, distace to kow Native America pathways, distace to military roads, ad costructio material, several treds were idetified. The tred of all the groups favorig the placemet of forts withi oe mile of fresh water ca very easily be explaied i that the idividuals costructig the forts realized that their survival depeded upo their access to water. I a period where roads could be othig more tha footpaths, which complicated travel, waterways were a efficiet way for militaries to ship supplies to outposts i additio to trasportig soldiers ad ammuitios. Water was such a valued mode of trasportatio durig the Frech ad Idia War that the Forks of the Ohio River located ear moder Pittsburgh saw both Fort Duquese ad Fort Pitt beig costructed alog its baks. As discussed previously withi this documet, this area was the scee where the Frech ad British egaged i battle to wi the right to cotrol the waterway i additio the areas where the water could lead a army. Other forts of this time were also placed alog major water ways, such as Fort Augusta, which was costructed at the cofluece of the Susquehaa River i a attempt to allow the British to cotrol trasportatio o the river. Aother example of forts costructed alog water ways is Fort Juiata Crossig, which was costructed so that it could effectively straddle the Juiata River ad efficietly cotrol the river s trasportatio. Access to water was ot oly beeficial for trasportatio, but it also brought food ad water. To esure that the forts 2

138 would be able to use water for trasportatio ad drikig, military egieers would have chose locatios that offered them a strategic advatage i additio to reliable water ways. Additioally, some forts, such as Fort Pitt, possessed wells to provide water for the garriso withi the safety of the fort s walls. A additioal tred that is idetifiable i Table 6 is the degree to which forts were located ear kow Native America pathways withi the state of Pesylvaia. It is kow that settlers ad military persoel of the mid-8 th cetury relied o the pathways that had bee established by Native Americas ad that a great deal of the travel withi the regio was completed by followig these pathways as the waterways were ofte difficult to avigate (Wallace 993:2). I additio to roadways, the military egieers of the Frech ad Idia War udoubtedly relied upo the Native America pathways as a meas for trasportig supplies, soldiers ad artillery. Distace to Native America pathways was also calculated for all the forts cotaied withi the database. The British forts o average were located. miles from pathways; the Frech were located 2.3 miles away from pathways; the Coloial forts were located a average of.4 miles from pathways, ad the Private forts were located a average of 0 miles away. It was expected that the Private forts would be located close to Native America pathways as these forts were typically costructed o private property or i geeralized meetig places, which would likely be coected to surroudig tows ad areas through a series of established pathways. It was also expected that the forts of the Frech ad British groups would be located alog Native America pathways for two reasos: ) The Native America allies of both Empires would likely have relied upo the pathways kow to their tribes ad could have passed this iformatio o to the Frech ad British militaries. 2) Both the Frech ad British Empires sought to cotrol the lad that would become Pesylvaia ad i doig so would likely 26

139 utilize every possible trasportatio etwork available to them. Access to more trasportatio etworks would have allowed both Empires to more effectively trasport a multitude of items across the ladscape i their quest for Empire ad total domiatio of a cotiet. The result of the average distaces of Coloial forts to Native America pathways was surprisig. The author hypothesized that the Coloial govermet would have take advatage of the available pathways i additio to the attaiable waterways; however, the data does ot support this hypothesis. There is evidece to suggest that the forts costructed by the Coloial govermet were costructed based o the assumptio that systematic ragig by detachmets of soldiers, movig from oe post to aother, would effectively detect ad deflect icomig war parties (Waddell 996:84). The Coloial forts were strategically placed i locatios that were ot based o proximity to Native America pathways but based o creatig a chai of forts to protect the resources ad people of the coloy. A fial tred that ca be idetified through Table 6 is the degree to which the locatio of military roads impacted the placemet of forts. Noe of the Frech forts were located ear Pesylvaia s military roads. There is a simple explaatio for this; however, as the military roads withi Pesylvaia were costructed by the British after the Frech forts withi Pesylvaia had bee costructed. British forts i Table 6 are divided betwee those that are located ear the military roads, located ear military roads, ad those that were ot located ear the military roads. British forts ot located ear a military road are located withi close proximity to waterways ad pathways ad were additioally costructed prior to the costructio of Forbes Road i 8. The Coloial forts, like the Frech forts, were foud to ot be located ear military roads accordig to the data preseted i Table 6. 2

140 Based o the aalysis to determie which costructio materials were favored durig the Frech ad Idia War ad whether the locatio of a fort could be correlated to the type of costructio materials utilized, it was discovered that fort locatio did ot affect the choice of costructio materials. The most prevalet costructio material utilized durig the Frech ad Idia War regardless of the fort costructor s backgroud was wood. Wood was a readily available resource with Pesylvaia durig this time, ad the results of this aalysis demostrate that the fort costructors chose wood as a primary costructio material. Each group of forts by costructor or egieer, except for the fort costructed by private idividuals who did ot possess costructio material iformatio, used wood as a primary material for fort costructio. The British, ulike ay other group, also used earth ad a combiatio of wood ad stoe to costruct forts. Sice some British forts used costructio materials other tha wood, it is possible that egieers from the other groups followed this tred, but this assumptio caot be cofirmed with the available iformatio. Coloial Fort Treds After aalyzig all available fort maps, several treds were idetified for forts costructed by the British, Frech, ad Coloials. Ufortuately, o map of the fort costructed by private idividuals was discovered, which did ot allow for this group of forts to be aalyzed. As merely oe map of Coloial forts was discovered, this map served as the example for Coloial forts. Variatios likely exist as oly oe map was utilized i this aalysis. Fort Alle of the Coloial army was foud to have bee provided with the basics of shelter, storehouses, artillery, ad drikig water through the placemet of a well. Ufortuately, without further fort maps, it is impossible to idetify additioal treds. 28

141 British Fort Treds After examiig the maps of the British forts it was possible to idetify treds withi the British forts. The first tred is that of the presece of specialized structures withi forts. Smaller forts, such as Fort Veago ad Fort Burd, appear ulikely to possess specialized structures such as sawmills, forges, bake oves, blacksmith shops, ad hospitals. Large forts appear to possess the specialized structures ot preset i smaller forts. The specialized structures i the larger forts allowed for the availability of a wider variety of items for the garriso s use ad for goods to be trasported to smaller forts i additio to beig used for trade with Native Americas. Large forts ted to be situated ear multiple trasportatio etworks, thereby cotrollig these etworks ad facilitatig trasportatio ad trade goods produced withi the fort. A secod tred associated with the British forts is the segregatio of the military through the livig quarters ad diig establishmets. Based o the umber of forts which possessed barracks for commo soldiers separate from the barracks of officers, it becomes apparet that the British military was ot oly reflectig their hierarchical society but also seekig to miimize the opportuity for discord betwee the soldiers ad the raked military officials. Aother tred is that of ope space withi the fort, which allowed the garriso to maeuver aroud the fort with miimal effort. Whether through a cetral parade groud or ope spaces aroud a cetral buildig, it is evidet that the British military egieers shared a kowledge of how a fort was to be orgaized to optimize limited space. A fial tred associated with the British forts was the presece of hospital buildig located away from the structures of the fort proper, which could have bee doe i a attempt to miimize disease ad illess outbreaks amog the garriso. 29

142 Frech Fort Treds Several treds were foud to exist withi the Frech forts. The first tred is that the smaller forts did ot cotai highly specialized structures but istead were likely to cotai simple structures such as barracks, storerooms, powder magazies, ad barracks for the garriso. It is possible that these smaller forts might have specialized structures associated with them, but o a miimal scale, exampled by the sawmill located at Fort Machault. The secod tred suggests that the larger Frech forts cotaied a wide variety of specialized buildigs ad idividuals that ot oly provided goods ad services to the garriso but would have allowed for these goods ad services to be trasported to other areas uder Frech cotrol or served as trade items with the local Native America atios. Aother tred suggests that the Frech military believed i segregatig its persoel for two reasos: ) to mimic the hierarchical social system foud i 8 th cetury Frech society, ad 2) to prevet cofrotatio withi the garriso betwee the elisted me ad the raked military officials. A additioal tred is the cetral parade groud devoid of structures deotes that Frech military egieers, as iflueced by Vauba, possessed a uified kowledge of how a fort was supposed to be orgaized for maximum efficiecy. A fial possible tred is the presece of the hospitals beig located outside of the fort s palisade walls, which could have helped prevet the spread of illess; this tred suggests that the Frech had some uderstadig of disease cotrol. Overarchig Fort Treds Overarchig treds idetified withi the various groups were examied i a attempt to uderstad 8 th cetury fort variability ad the huma behavior that developed these treds. Oe of the major treds idetified that speaks to the variability of forts ad 8 th cetury huma 30

143 behavior is locatio. The forts of the Frech ad Idia War were itetioally placed i locatios that would afford the garriso ad the group claimig the fort the best strategic advatage. As discussed i the previous paragraphs, the forts of the 8 th cetury were situated at waterways, pathways, ad military roads. By cotrollig portios of these trasportatio etworks, the forts could cotrol the trasportatio specific to their geographic areas. It was iitially believed by the author that the larger forts (greater tha 8,000 square feet) would be located alog river coflueces; however, this was ot foud to be true. This tred is oted i the British forts with Fort Pitt situated at the Forks of the Ohio ad Fort Augusta at the cofluece of the east ad west braches of the Susquehaa River, but did ot hold true for other groups. The Frech Fort Duquese was located alog the Forks of the Ohio, prior to the erectio of Fort Pitt, ad was quite small i compariso. Furthermore, large British forts were discovered to be situated alog multiple trasportatio etworks that were ot strictly limited to a river cofluece. Forts Bedford ad Ligoier, both large British forts, were discovered to occupy areas of lad, which offered cotrol of a sigle river i additio to pathways ad military roads. Based o this iformatio, it is apparet that fort size was ot depedet o forts beig located o river coflueces. Rather, fort size was depedet o locatios that offered maximum cotrol over multiple trasportatio etworks. Additioally, the circumstaces surroudig the costructio of these forts ad who costructed the fort also determied the size of the fort. It has bee show that the British military egieers costructed the largest forts, followed by the Frech ad the the Coloial forts. Oe ca argue that the Frech forts ted to be smaller due to the time i which they were costructed. Whe Frace bega costructig forts with Pesylvaia, o formal declaratio of war had bee made ad the areas cotrolled by the Frech forts were ot heavily cotested. The 3

144 Frech costructed forts i a attempt to cotrol the frotier ad protect Frace s iterests. The British, however, bega buildig forts after the icidet at Fort Necessity, which fueled hostilities betwee the British ad Frech. This chage i the date of fort costructios could explai why the British costructed larger forts. The British costructed forts such as Fort Bedford ad Fort Ligoier to house sizeable troops, which were marchig for the Forks of the Ohio i additio to servig as lies of commuicatio with the easter portio of the state. Other forts, like Fort Pitt, were created to house large garrisos to cotrol highly cotested geographic locatios at the peak of hostilities betwee Eglad ad Frace durig the Frech ad Idia War. The tred of forts beig placed i areas that would allow for the garriso to cotrol travel of me ad supplies over various trasportatio etworks deotes that military egieers of the 8 th cetury, regardless of their group, shared the desire to cotrol their eemies by cotrollig trasportatio etworks, or strategic locatios as explaied i the defiitio of fort created for this thesis. This behavior of cotrollig all available trasportatio routes is reflected i smaller forts as well, though o a slighter scale. Every fort that had a fort map was positioed i areas where the garriso could cotrol a waterway, a pathway, ad/or a military road. A tred was also oticed i how the military egieers of the 8 th cetury utilized space withi the forts they costructed. This tred was aticipated by the author due to the percetage of forts that were ispired by the style developed by Vauba. Withi the forts of the Coloial, British, ad Frech groups, there is a allotmet of space either through the presece of a cetral parade groud or i space located betwee a cetral buildig ad the palisade wall. This space udoubtedly served as a meas for maeuverig the garriso, aimals, ad supplies throughout the fort i a efficiet maer while i the safety of the forts' walls. With the presece of this 32

145 ope space withi the forts, it becomes clear that 8 th cetury egieers had a shared idea of how the forts they were desigig should be orgaized for maximum efficiecy. Overarchig Treds of Iteral Fort Space ad Costructio Materials There was also a tred for the structures ecompassig the space withi the forts of the Frech ad Idia War. There appeared to be basic structures with which forts of all sizes were equipped: a storehouse for goods ad/or ammuitios ad barracks. The Coloial Fort Alle ad the smaller British forts Burd ad Veago were comprised of these basic structures. The storehouses protected supplies ad probably icluded ammuitio for the forts' defeses i additio to ay other objects which the garriso wished to protect from elemets ad eemy forces. The barracks served the fuctio of offerig the garriso a place to sleep ad eat away from the elemets. The author cosiders these smaller forts with just the basics to be Level forts forts, which are small, resposible for miimal trasportatio etworks, ad were outfitted with the basic essetials. Larger forts for the Frech ad British, those which cotrolled two trasportatio etworks of strategic importace, appear to have more structures associated with the fort. The additioal structures ofte icluded segregated barracks for the elisted me ad raked officers; multiple storehouses; a powder magazie ad a hospital. These structures were udoubtedly added i a attempt to orgaize the space withi a larger fort which was home to a greater garriso. These large forts, which icluded segregated barracks, multiple storehouses, powder magazie, ad a hospital, are cosidered to be Level 2 forts by the author. Examples of Level 2 forts are the British Forts Augusta ad the Frech Fort Machault. 33

146 The last level of forts are Level 3 forts which cotrolled three or more strategic trasportatio etworks ad were foud to iclude additioal structures ot foud i Level 2 forts. The additioal structures icluded i Level 3 forts icluded bake oves; blacksmith shops; multiple hospitals; prisos; highly segregated barracks for elisted me, officers, captais, coloels, geerals, priso warde, Chapli, surgeo, iterpreters, ad segregated diig halls. The presece of these specialized structures udoubtedly served the garriso statioed at these forts but additioally served as a place for trade goods to be made to icrease favor with local Native America atios ad travelers to the forts. Examples of a Level 3 fort iclude the British Forts Bedford, Ligoier ad Pitt. The fort costructed by private idividuals, ufortuately, does ot fit ito these arbitrary levels as it was created for the explicit purpose of protectig a idividual homestead or a small commuity; however, smaller forts costructed by private idividuals udoubtedly possessed the equivalecy of storehouses, barracks ad powder magazies, which would have additioally bee located withi the forts protective walls. The iteral structurig of the forts suggests that the 8 th cetury military egieers, regardless of their group, possessed a shared behavior of structurig their forts i the same maer. Smaller forts, or Level forts, icluded the basics of shelter ad storage for the garriso ad supplies. Medium sized forts that cotrolled at least two trasportatio etworks, or Level 2 forts, received structures, which were more specialized. Large forts, which cotrolled three or more trasportatio etworks, or Level 3 forts, were equipped with the basic structures i additio to specialized structures, which offered a wider variety of goods ad services. Therefore, it becomes it is possible that the locatio ad size of a fort are directly associated with the degree of specializatio a fort would possess i additio to higher degrees of space utilizatio 34

147 as the egieers worked to structure the forts i a efficiet maer. However, as discussed previously withi this documet, may more factors such as the purpose the fort was costructed for ad which idividual desiged ad costructed the fort greatly affected the placemet ad size of each fort costructed, i additio to the structures associated with the fort. Each fort ecoutered withi this study possessed a uique history which greatly affected the size of the fort, the locatio i which it was placed, the size of the garriso statioed withi the fort, ad the type of ameities that the fort would be equipped with. A fial tred idetified through the study of fort variability is the tred of forts beig costructed primarily out of wood. As metioed previously withi this documet, the majority of the forts costructed durig the Frech ad Idia War, regardless of group, were costructed out of wood. While the British ad Coloial forts were sometimes costructed out of a combiatio of wood ad stoe, or wood ad earth, there is a tred of most forts beig costructed out of wood. The behavior of costructig forts out of wood could possibly suggest a preferece for costructig forts out of wood or could be a result of wood beig a rich atural resource for Pesylvaia. Regardless of the reasoig, clearly the military egieers operatig durig the Frech ad Idia War relied heavily o timber to costruct their forts. Through the examiatio of the treds associated with the forts of the Frech ad Idia War, it becomes clear that there is miimal variability withi the forts despite beig costructed by differet groups. The lack of variability suggests that the idividuals plaig ad costructig the forts durig this time possessed a shared idea of what the purpose of a fort was ad that there was a shared idea about how a fort was to be desiged. Although this shared idea of how a fort was to be desiged could be lesser i the forts costructed by the Coloials ad private idividuals due to a lack of military egieerig traiig. The British were udoubtedly 3

148 iflueced by the Frech method developed by Vauba as the th cetury desig proved to be reliable. It is kow that the British adapted Vauba s style ad used it as a template for creatig their ow forts withi the North America coloies (Muller 4). While variatios occur, primarily i the attribute of pla ad layout, the variatios are miimal. The forts of all groups datig to the Frech ad Idia War were foud to be primarily costructed out of wood, located withi oe mile of a fresh water source, which provided a meas of trasportatio; additioally, most of the forts were foud to be located ear kow Native America pathways, which allowed for the garriso a meas for cotrollig aother aveue of trasportatio. The proximity of the forts to these trasportatio etworks proves that the forts of the 8 th cetury were ot placed at radom but were costructed i areas that would afford the differig groups a degree of cotrol over the trasportatio withi the area surroudig the fort. Research Objective 3: Use the typology to examie the variability amog 8 th cetury forts, ad examie how these variatios relate to treds i 8 th cetury society ad techology. As stated i Chapter 4, to aswer Research Objective 3 it was ecessary to aalyze forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War that were located outside of Pesylvaia. To retai cohesio with the aalysis of the Pesylvaia forts the same methods of aalysis were utilized for the o- Pesylvaia forts regardless of whether they were costructed by the Frech, British, Coloial govermets or private idividuals. By aalyzig the o-pesylvaia forts ad comparig the results to those of the Pesylvaia fort aalysis, it was possible to ascertai the ifluece that 8 th cetury techology ad society had o the forts created durig this time. The results of fort size demostrated that the largest o-pesylvaia forts were costructed by the British Army followed by the Frech who were foud to have costructed larger forts tha those built by idividual Coloial govermets. Oe possible explaatio for 36

149 the tred of the British erectig larger forts tha ay other group is the ature of the war that the British were fightig. The majority, 82 percet of British forts were costructed i 4 or later, which is cosistet with the tred idetified withi the Pesylvaia forts. After the Battle of Fort Necessity igited formal hostilities betwee the Frech ad the America coloies with vulerable frotier settlemets the British military provided aid by costructig forts to combat the Frech military. The British were costructig forts for two primary purposes: ) to defed their frotier borders ad 2) to have militarized structures that would house troops who could veture ito the frotier to defeat the Frech. The Frech forts, which were smaller, were foud to have bee maily costructed prior to 4. The majority of the Frech forts (4 percet) were costructed prior to 4, which suggests that the Frech were buildig forts to serve as outposts o the frotier that could promote Frace s cotrol o the frotier. The Frech did ot costruct their forts with the itet of goig to war with the British, but rather maitaiig a military presece o the frotier. The forts costructed by Coloial govermets ad private idividuals were foud to have bee costructed after 4, suggestig that these structures were built to protect settlemets, defed agaist attack, ad assist the British with the coflict with the Frech. The size of the Coloial forts were foud to be much smaller tha the forts costructed by the British ad the Frech, which could be a result of several factors. The forts costructed by the Coloial govermets could have bee slighter due to a miuscule amout of formal egieer traiig. Additioally, the forts might have bee smaller due to the size of available me who would be statioed withi the fort a small garriso does ot warrat a large fort. The average square footage used i this aalysis, however, is the size of oe fort Fort Ashby, ad is ot a 3

150 represetative of all Coloial forts costructed outside of Pesylvaia durig the Frech ad Idia War. As with the case of the Pesylvaia forts, there are gaps preset withi the database, which affected the data preseted i Chapter Four. Of the 6 forts, 42 percet had available square footage iformatio. The gaps withi the database could be a result of previous researchers who could have focused their attetio o the larger forts of the time such as Forts Niagara, Ticoderoga, Detroit, ad Michilimackiac. Other forts, primarily those costructed by Coloial govermets ad private idividuals, may have bee uitetioally overlooked withi the historical ad archaeological records, which created a bias withi the available iformatio. The aalysis to determie the favored pla ad layout styles of the various groups active durig the Frech ad Idia War foud that the British favored pla ad layout styles created by Vauba with 83% of the forts beig either star forts or irregular star forts. Stockade forts, which are ot associated with Vauba, were also utilized by the British i small umbers, oly 0%. As the British favored the pla ad layout styles of Vauba, it was ot surprisig to discover that the forts were quite large as it is kow from the previous aalysis that the British costructed large forts. The star forts were foud to be larger tha the irregular star forts by 0,6 square feet. This is opposite of the tred idetified withi the Pesylvaia forts where the irregular star forts were foud to be greater. The Frech relied heavily o the pla ad layout styles created by Vauba with 68 percet of the forts beig attributed to Vauba. As with the British forts, stockade forts were also utilized by the Frech. Additioally, there are five forts with ukow pla ad layout styles. I cotrast to the British forts, the largest forts costructed by the Frech were the irregular star forts. 38

151 The Coloial forts were foud to favor the pla ad layout styles of Vauba with percet of the forts beig either star forts or irregular star forts. Stockade forts were also utilized by Coloial fort costructors. Forts costructed by private idividuals were foud to have ot relied upo forts ispired by Vauba with two stockade forts ad oe irregular star fort. No available square footage iformatio was available to make a compariso o fort size for these forts. The degree of reliace o styles developed by Vauba was examied for the Frech ad Idia War forts located outside of Pesylvaia i a attempt to obtai a image of the utilizatio of Vauba styled forts. The forts costructed outside of Pesylvaia show a heavy reliace o the styles of forts developed by Vauba (Table 2). Examiig which pla ad layout styles were typically foud to be the largest it was discovered that the star forts were the largest with a average square footage of, square feet. Irregular star forts were foud to be the secod largest with a average square footage of 02,03 square feet. The fial pla ad layout used was the stockade fort which had a average square footage of 2,9 square feet. The results show that the star fort was the most popular style for o-pesylvaia forts with 32 forts. Irregular star forts were the ext most popular style with ie forts, followed by seve stockade forts. Seve forts had ukow pla ad layout styles that were ot used i this aalysis. The aalysis to determie the degree to which locatio ad distace to water affected fort size resulted i a tred demostratig that most forts were located close to a water source. The tred of all groups sharig the tedecy to place forts withi close proximity to water ca very easily be explaied (Table ). The presece of water ear a fort was importat to a fort's survival ot oly for drikig ad cookig purposes but due to water beig a major form of trasportatio withi North America durig the 8 th cetury. Waterways allowed access to 39

152 trasportatio of me ad supplies ot just withi a coloy or regio but to other areas ad eve to other coutries. Forts were placed alog smaller waterways such as creeks ad streams i additio to larger bodies of water such as major rivers, icludig the Potomac River ad the Ohio Table. Average Distace to Water by Group Group Average Distace i Miles British 0.2 Frech 0.20 Coloial 0.06 Private 0.2 River, as well as the Great Lakes ad the Atlatic Ocea. Based o this iformatio, ad the iformatio from the Pesylvaia fort aalysis, a tred of placig forts alog waterways has bee idetified, which further suggests that these forts were ot placed at radom but i locatios that were strategically importat with the added advatage of allowig the fort to cotrol trasportatio alog waterways. As with case of the Pesylvaia forts, costructio materials favored durig the Frech ad Idia War were foud ot be directly correlated to the fort s locatio. Of the o- Pesylvaia forts, wood was the most prevalet costructio material utilized durig the 8 th cetury. This was expected as wood was a abudat resource withi the Easter ad Mid- Atlatic regio of the Uited States ad Caada. As Table 6 demostrates, other materials used i fort costructio were stoe, earth ad a combiatio of either wood ad stoe, or wood ad earth. 40

153 Table 6. Costructio Materials of the Frech ad Idia War Costructio Materials Number of Forts Costructed by Material Wood Stoe 8 Earth 2 Combiatio 2 For the aalysis of the fort maps, oly the British ad Frech forts were examied due to o maps beig located for the forts costructed by Coloial govermets ad private idividuals. British Fort Treds After examiig the maps of the British forts, it was possible to idetify treds i the utilizatio of space withi the forts of the British military. Oe tred is the presece of a cetral parade groud that allowed for the garriso, supplies, artillery ad settlers to maeuver about the fort with miimal obstacles. There is also evidece to suggest that the British forts located outside of Pesylvaia believed i segregatig their raked military officials from the elisted me, which would reduce the chaces of discord betwee the officers, or upper classed me, from the commo elisted soldiers. Both forts share the tred of beig equipped with the basics: a powder magazie, barracks, ad storage room. These structures were all placed withi the forts palisade walls i order to protect them from eemy forces. There is also a tred of placig wells withi the fort to provide easily accessible water to the garriso. Ufortuately, the small umber of forts available for this aalysis did ot provide results as strog as those ecoutered withi the Pesylvaia forts. 4

154 Frech Fort Treds Withi the o-pesylvaia Frech forts, there have bee several treds idetified, oe of which is the presece of a cetral parade groud withi the fort, which deotes a shared idea for Frech egieers who allotted for a ope space that allowed fort activities to proceed while miimizig cogestio as the garrisos ad supplies were provided ample space to maeuver. The Frech forts, as expected, also cotaied the basic structures of a powder magazie, barracks for the garriso ad storage space for supplies ad muitios. The forts examied also possess structures that exceed the basics ad hit at the overall importace of the forts. Both Fort Detroit ad Fort Froteac were equipped with either a church or chapel, which suggests the Frech military sought to provide spiritual cousel to their soldiers through providig mass services ad cofessios. Fort Detroit was equipped with a butcher s shop, which deotes the processig of meat for the garriso s diet. Fort Froteac possessed a forge, which further suggests that the Frech military employed specialized idividuals withi the garriso to assist with the demads of the fort. There is a mior tred of stables beig associated with Frech forts but as this was oly preset withi oe fort, it is difficult to determie the degree of this aspect s importace. Likewise is the case for the areas allotted to the settlemet of idigeous populatios outside of Fort Froteac. Both Frech forts cosidered i the map aalysis possessed gardes, which were utilized as vegetable gardes to provide fresh produce to the garrisos. Ufortuately, due the small umber of forts that were aalyzed, there was ot eough data poits to defiitely idetify treds for the Frech forts located outside of Pesylvaia. 42

155 Overarchig Fort Treds The overarchig treds idetified withi the British ad Frech forts will ow be preseted ad aalyzed. These treds were examied i a attempt to uderstad 8 th cetury fort variability ad to uderstad the huma behavior that developed the idetified treds. The treds of fort locatio durig the Frech ad Idia War will be the first treds to be discussed. Of the forts costructed durig the Frech ad Idia War, it is kow that the forts were ot placed at radom but were rather placed i locatios which would provide the fort maximum cotrol over a strategic geographical locatio. This ofte meat placig forts alog waterways that would have afforded the garriso the ability to cotrol trasportatio of troops ad supplies. Iitially, it was believed that there was a correlatio betwee fort size ad locatio. While this was foud to be true, other factors played a role i the size of a fort. Origially, it was thought that larger forts would be located alog river coflueces, while this was occasioally the case, other factors such as the specific purpose for a fort's costructio i additio to the date it was erected ad garriso sizes were also foud to ifluece fort size. I the case of the specific purpose of a fort's costructio i correlatio to size the example of Fort Crow Poit, which was erected by the British after Fort Frédéric was take from the Frech. Fort Crow Poit (362,46 square feet) was erected at the site of Fort Frédéric (3,9 square feet) was udoubtedly built i such a massive fashio to house a large garriso that would be capable of prevetig the Frech from retakig the strategic locatio. Fort Crow Poit also served as a base locatio for the British military to mout attacks agaist the Frech military ad was desiged to house additioal troops for offeses agaist the Frech i additio to the garriso whe eeded. The ifluece that the date of a fort s costructio has also bee discussed previously withi this documet but will be reiterated briefly here. Forts costructed prior to the 43

156 4 Battle of Fort Necessity were costructed as outposts of a empire to maitai a presece alog the frotier i a attempt to prevet others from settlig i the same area; they were ot costructed for the itet of war. Forts costructed after 4 were costructed with the itet of war ad were built to house sizeable garrisos, supplies ad muitios. The correlatio of size of fort garriso is a simple matter large garrisos require more space while smaller garrisos do ot require massive square footages. Furthermore, the tred of forts beig placed i areas that would allow for the garriso to cotrol travel of me ad supplies over various trasportatio etworks deotes that military egieers of the 8 th cetury, regardless of their group, shared the desire to cotrol their eemies by cotrollig trasportatio etworks, or strategic locatios as explaied i the defiitio of fort created for this thesis. This behavior of cotrollig all available trasportatio routes is reflected i smaller forts as well, though o a slighter scale. Overarchig Treds of Iteral Fort Space A tred associated with how military egieers of the 8 th cetury utilized space withi forts was aticipated due to the percetage of forts that were ispired by Vauba. Withi the forts of the British ad Frech, there was a allotmet of space either through the presece of a cetral parade groud, space located betwee a cetral buildig ad the palisade wall, or ope areas withi the fort that served as a meas for maeuverig the garriso, aimals, ad supplies throughout the fort i a efficiet maer while i the safety of the forts' walls. This tred represets a shared belief amogst 8 th cetury egieers of how the forts should be orgaized for maximum efficiecy. 44

157 A secod tred was the degree of associatio betwee the strategic locatios i which forts were situated, the size of the fort, ad the degree of specializatio of the structures cotaied withi the fort. By explorig this tred ad the fort maps, the three arbitrary fort levels idetified i the Pesylvaia forts were foud to exist withi the o-pesylvaia forts. Level forts were small, 40,000 square feet or less, ad had bee foud to cotrol ad have access to at least oe waterway. These forts appear to have bee outfitted with what the author has deemed basic structures: a powder magazie, a storage room which may or may ot be coected with a barracks, ad possibly a well. As a result, these forts may have bee of miimal importace strategically whe compared to other forts. A example of this level of fort is the Fort at Number Four. While the structures that comprised these forts were likely a space where muitios ad supplies were kept ad a place for the garriso to sleep, there is o evidece that these forts cotaied more specialized structures. No Level forts were discovered to exist withi the Frech forts but it is possible that the small umber of available Frech maps limited this result. Level 2 forts were also ecoutered ad are classified as typically 4,000 to 80,000 square feet with access to at least two waterways. These forts were comprised of the basic structures metioed for the Level forts i additio to specialized structures, such as a saw mill, additioal storehouses, a forge, guard room, or a hospital. The umber of specialized structures usually does ot exceed oe or two additioal structures. A primary tred of the Level 2 fort is the segregatio of military persoel withi the fort. As metioed previously withi this documet, this tred is reflective of the hierarchical social systems preset withi Eglad ad Frace durig the 8 th cetury. Based o historical documetatio, it is kow that officers were typically members of the upper class whose families could afford to sed their sos to the 4

158 military academies where they would receive istructio i mathematics, fortificatio, civil law, ad history (Hay ad Rogers 99:22; Starkey 2003:, 83-84). The commo, elisted soldiers were characteristically from regular families who were viewed as peasatry, icapable of behavig like a getlema (Starkey 2003:2, ). Echoig the societal treds, equality was a cocept foreig to most officers who cosidered cosortig with commo soldiers as coduct ubecomig a officer the officers distaced themselves from the regular soldiers (Starkey 2003:, 92). This social peckig order was reflected i the coloial army as well, as the America coloists were greatly iflueced by their British couterparts (Volvo ad Volvo 2006:40). A example of this level of fort is Fort Bull. The last level that was idetified withi the o-pesylvaia forts was Level 3, which is characterized by a large size, upwards of 8,000 square feet, ad possessig access to multiple waters or oe primary waterway such as a major river, oe of the Great Lakes, or the Atlatic Ocea. Level 3 forts were equipped with the basic structures but were foud to iclude three or more specialized structures. These structures could iclude chapels, gardes, butcher shops, forges, prisos, hospitals, stables, surgeo s quarters, Chapli s quarters, iterpreter s quarters, warde s quarters, ad areas desigated as Native America storage rooms or Native America sleepig quarters or camps. Withi Level 3 forts, segregatio of military persoel was also ecoutered. The barracks were typically foud to be positioed farther apart ad were segregated ito barracks for the commo soldier, the officer s quarters ad specific housig for the commadat or geeral. Examples of this level of fort are Forts Detroit ad Michilimackiac. 46

159 Fial Treds The fial portio of the results for Research Objective 3, the examiatio of 8 th cetury fort variatios ad the likage betwee these variatios to 8 th cetury societal ad techological treds, will ow be preseted. Based o the results of Research Objective 2 ad those determied i the previous paragraphs of this sectio, may treds were discovered to exist withi the groups of the Frech ad Idia War. Several of the treds are overarchig ad have bee idetified withi all or multiple groups; other treds are uique to specific groups. The first tred foud to be preset i all four groups withi the Frech ad Idia War withi Pesylvaia ad those that are located outside of Pesylvaia is the tred of forts beig itetioally situated at strategic geographic locatios. The forts were ot foud to be placed at radom but were istead foud to be placed i areas, which would beefit the atio that costructed the fort. These strategic locatios are those that allowed the forts garrisos to cotrol trasportatio ad commuicatio etworks (Brecher 998:6). The Frech ad British, i additio to their Coloial ad Private couterparts, sought to advace their Empires while stutig the growth of their rivals. The Frech sought to cotrol more space while stutig the British expasio past the Alleghey Moutais, while the British brazely pushed the limitatios of their boudaries ito the cotested frotier (Brecher 998:- 6). The British sought to cotrol Frech expasio by costructig forts alog North Americas coasts, which it could protect with their powerful Navy leadig to delays i the Frech resupplyig their forts; i cotrast, the Frech focused o costructig fortresses located further ilad, which they believed to be iaccessible to other groups (Brecher 998:2-23). The Coloial govermet was expected to costruct their ow forts i additio to supply most of their ow arms accoutremets, ad clothig. The coloial govermets geerally supplied 4

160 cao, replacemet ammuitio, ad provisios (Volvo ad Volvo 2006:4). The result was a series of frotier forts, which were situated i the wilderess i a attempt to protect the idividual iterests of the Pesylvaia coloy i additio to the expadig settlemets. These Coloial frotier forts were substituted by the forts costructed by Private families or commuities placed i the strategic locatios of homes or commuity ceters, which sought to bolster a sese of security i a time of aticipated tragedy (Volvo ad Volvo 2006:36). These forts relied upo access to trasportatio ad commuicatio etworks, which coected them to settled areas. These etworks were comprised of three types: waterways, pathways, ad military roads. There was a tred amog all groups of placig forts close to waterways. While the average distaces vary by group, it was foud that the forts were ever more tha a mile ad a half from water. I spite of progress i road buildig, the aveues of commuicatio [ad trasportatio] remaied isufficiet. The meas of meas of trasportatio had bee chaged, but ot appreciably trasformed, sice the begiig of moder times (Sée 2004:6). Waterways were the oly efficiet meas of trasportig goods ad crops i additio to the me who would costitute garrisos ad ammuitio ad other fortificatio materials (Volvo ad Volvo 2006:36). Whe ecessary, military persoel would traverse the ladscape o pathways established by Native Americas i additio to the ewer military roads. Despite the presece of pathways or military roads, trasportatio by water was still the most effective method for the militaries of the 8 th cetury. Oe area of variatio withi the forts of the Frech ad Idia War is that of the pla ad layouts used by the various groups i additio to the costructio materials utilized to costruct the forts. While there are several fort pla ad layout styles, which were implemeted by the groups, the degree to which the styles were costructed varied, as discussed previously withi 48

161 this documet. The British ad Frech favored the star fort pla ad layout style while the Coloials favored star forts, irregular star forts, square forts ad stockade forts i equal degrees. Forts costructed by private idividuals favored stockaded forts. Table depicts the overall usage of the plas ad layouts that occurred withi the Frech ad Idia War sample. Of the 0 forts with kow pla ad layout iformatio, 42 percet were foud to be star forts, 2 percet were irregular star forts; percet were stockade forts, 0.09 percet were square forts, 6 percet were foud to be comprised of other plas ad layouts such as fortified mills or Table. Overall Fort Pla ad Layouts for the Frech ad Idia War Group British Cout by Pla ad Layout 28 Star Forts 0 Irregular Star Forts 4 Stockade Forts 3 Square Forts 2 Forts of Ukow Pla ad Layout Frech Coloial Star Forts 2 Irregular Star Forts Stockade Forts Fort of Ukow Pla ad Layout 3 Star Forts 3 Irregular Star Forts 3 Square Forts 3 Stockade Forts Private Irregular Star Fort 3 Stockade Forts Forts of Ukow Pla ad Layout 49

162 stockaded homesteads, ad percet were foud to have ukow plas ad layouts. The majority of the star forts ad irregular star forts were foud to be British ad Frech i origi with miimal usage i the Coloial ad Private forts. Forts of other styles exist throughout all Frech ad Idia War groups but occurred with more frequecy withi the Coloial ad Private group forts. These variatios withi the groups ca be explaied by examiig societal ad techological treds of the 8 th cetury. As metioed previously withi this documet, Vauba developed a ew method of fortificatio i the latter part of the th cetury. This method was quickly adopted by the Frech military ad taught i Frace s military academies. As kowledge of Frace s ew fortificatio method became kow throughout Europe, it was udoubtedly oted by Frech rivals. It is kow that Eglad adopted the use by the 0s, ad by the 0s were publishig mauals where the Frech style was adapted to suit advacemets i artillery (Muller 4). Durig much of the 8 th cetury, both Frace ad Eglad relied upo Vauba s fortificatio style to a great extet. Other styles are kow to have bee used, such a stockade fort or a square fort ad eve Washigto s uique circular fort. However, the use of Vauba s system was still the stadard. The forts located outside of Pesylvaia followed the same patter i regards to favored pla ad layout styles. The existece of Vauba styled forts withi the Coloial ad Private forts deotes that the America coloists, at this time still members of British society, were likely copyig styles that they had see the British erect. It is kow through moder referece materials that some of the coloial peers had provided themselves a educatio through idepedet study, which might have taught them the art of fortificatio (Volvo ad Volvo 2006:98). Nevertheless, Coloial militia ad Coloial reserves were beeath the regulars of the British army; as a result the Coloials were sometimes forced to fill i the gaps withi their 0

163 supplies (Starkey 2003:3). It is this lack of militarized traiig ad the expectatio to defed ad arm themselves that explais the variety of forts ecoutered withi the Coloial group forts. The use of Vauba-ispiratio i forts costructed by private idividuals ad Coloial forts deotes some access to fortificatio traiig; however, the heavy reliace o other plas ad layouts such as stockaded farmhouses ad a fortified mills deotes miimal fortificatio traiig ad possibly supplies. Aother possible explaatio for the members of the Coloial ad Private groups to favor styles such as stockaded farmhouses is the umber of literate idividuals foud withi o-elite or wealthy classes. For a idividual who was ot afforded a educatio from a military academy to obtai traiig i militarized egieerig the idividual eeded to be literate i order to read the various mauals available durig this time period. However, people from lower classes were ofte ot literate, with roughly % of rural Coloial Americas beig able to sig their ames ad roughly 66% of the populatio possibly beig literate (Grubb 990:43-44, 49). If a idividual was ot able to read ad had ot bee afforded formal educatio the forts costructed by these peoples likely favored styles ot associated with those of Vauba. The circumstaces i which the Private forts were costructed are somewhat similar to those of the Coloial forts. It is possible that some private idividuals who were ot servig withi the coloial militia ad had ot served i the British army made a idepedet study out of the British military. Some of the forts costructed by private idividuals do show Vaubaispiratio, but it is difficult to say if this is the result of idepedet study of private citizes or copyig the forts that were beig costructed by the coloial govermet ad the British. Regardless of how these forts came to be, the Private forts were miimally ispired by Vauba. This is most likely due to a lack of formal fortificatio study ad the eed to defed themselves withi their frotier settlemets.

164 Other variatios occur withi the costructio materials used to costruct the 8 th cetury forts. While there exists a tred withi all groups to costruct forts out of wood, there is variatio i the other materials that were utilized. As Table 8 represets, of the 6 forts with available costructio material iformatio, 66 percet of the forts were foud to be costructed out of wood. Forty percet were costructed out of wood, 63 percet of the British forts were costructed out of wood, 83 percet of Coloial forts were made of wood, ad 00 percet of the Private forts were costructed out of wood. It was expected by the author that a large portio of the Frech ad Idia War forts would be costructed out of wood. Durig the 8 th cetury, the America coloies had a abudat supply of wood ad as a result there was a heavy reliace o wood to costruct structures from sawmills to houses to forts (Pe State Uiversity d; The Library of Cogress 204). Stoe was also a popular costructio material withi coloial America with 6 percet of all forts utilizig this material. Based o the available iformatio o costructio materials of forts, the Frech ad British used stoe to the same degree as each other with both costructig oly four forts out of stoe. Stoe was also used to costruct Coloial forts but o a lesser scale tha the Frech or British with oly oe stoe fort. Stoe was ot idetified as a costructio material withi the Private forts. Earthe forts appear to be uique durig this time period with oly 0.0 percet of the forts beig costructed out of earth. The British were the oly group to utilize earth as a costructio material. It is possible that other groups also built earthe forts, but o iformatio was foud to be available withi the historical record. 2

165 Table 8. Fort Costructio Materials Treds for Frech ad Idia War Forts Group Frech British Coloial Private Cout by Costructio Material 4 wood 4 stoe 2 earth ad wood 9 wood 4 stoe 4 earth 2 wood ad earth wood ad stoe 0 wood stoe wood ad stoe 4 wood A fial costructio material that was used durig this time was a combiatio of either wood ad stoe or wood ad earth. Based o Table 4, 0 percet of all forts were costructed out of a combiatio: 20 percet of Frech forts were costructed out of earth ad wood, 0 percet of the British forts were costructed out of wood ad stoe or wood ad earth, ad 0.08 percet of all Coloial forts were costructed out of wood ad stoe. The use of a combiatio of costructio materials to build a fort was ot idetified withi the Private group forts. This combiatio of costructio materials was commo durig the 8 th cetury where wood ad stoe i additio to earth were commoly used i the costructio of houses ad other structures (Pe State Uiversity d). Two fial variatios that were discovered through the aalyses for this thesis cocered Frech forts. The first tred was idetified while examiig the maps of Forts Detroit ad Froteac the tred of gardes. While this tred is small, oly beig foud o the map of these 3

166 two forts, it is kow that this tred was ot uique to Frech forts- as discussed previously withi this documet. The gardes, referred to as the Kig s Garde, served as a vegetable garde that could have supplated the garriso s diet. It is kow that the British military did ot allow its soldiers to live off the coutry ad that the British garrisos were typically well supplied by the mother coutry ad the Coloial govermet (Starkey 2003:6, 42). The secod tred uique to the Frech forts is the presece of chapels. While coductig the fort map aalyses for the Pesylvaia ad o-pesylvaia forts, it was oted that the Frech forts were sometimes equipped with a chapel, church, or quarters for a Chapli. The map of Fort Duquese deotes the chambers of a Chapli, Fort Detroit is labeled as possessig a church, ad Fort Froteac is labeled as havig a chapel. These structures did ot appear withi the forts of the other groups. Historical documetatio has suggested that religio had little place i the armies of the 8 th cetury (Starkey 2003:80-8). It is possible that the Frech sought to provide spiritual cousel to their garrisos while they were away from home ad uable to atted Catholic mass. It is also possible that religious structures were popular withi Frech forts for coversio purposes. Historical documetatio has show that Catholic priests or friars who were statioed at forts were covertig idividuals to Catholicism ad coductig baptisms (Daly 98:206-20). Jesuit missioaries ofte accompaied Frech exploratios ad set up missios at Frech fortificatios which saw Jesuit missioaries at most of New Frace s major forts where they ot oly acted as missioaries but also as chaplai s for the fort s garriso (Chartrad 200: 9-). Nevertheless, suggested purposes for the presece of these structures strictly withi the Frech forts remais speculatio. As for the absece of religious structures i British forts, it is possible that these structures were cotaied withi other structures represeted o the map. For example, the structure labeled as the Great Hall at the Fort at Number 4 is 4

167 believed to have bee a multipurpose room which could have served as a chapel (The Fort at Number 4 204). It is kow that the positio of military chaplai was created i the Articles of War of 662 ad 663 by the British Parliamet so that military persoel could have their morale raised through the readig of prayers ad preachig to the garriso (Burley 203:20-2). Fially, areas of variatios occur withi the Level 3 forts idetified withi this study. Forts of Frech group were foud to possess specialized structures that were ot discovered to exist i the Level 3 forts of British or Coloial group. These structures iclude prisos, gardes, ad chapels or churches. Fort Duquese icluded a priso; the presece of this priso idicates that the Frech military was takig captives ad/or imprisoig members of their military. Gardes were also a uique feature of Forts Detroit ad Froteac ad were ot see i ay other forts aalyzed for this thesis. After examiig the results of Research Objective 3, it became apparet that there exist areas of variability i additio to areas of similarity withi the forts of the Frech ad Idia War. As evideced by the previous paragraphs, the forts belogig to the British ad Frech groups were ot discerable based o their locatios, costructio methods or pla ad layout style. The placemet of forts was determied by the desire to cotrol strategic geographic locatios i additio to cotrollig maximum trasportatio etworks. Costructio materials across all groupigs were domiated by the usage of wood as a primary material. Pla ad layout styles were also foud to be heavily iflueced by those styles created by Vauba. These areas of similarities are attributed to the military egieers of the Frech ad British armies possessig a shared ideal fortificatio. Aother area of similarity withi the forts of the Frech ad Idia War which further deotes a shared idea of what a fort should look like is the idetified three levels of forts.

168 Despite several areas of similarities withi the Frech ad Idia War forts there are several areas of variability ad differeces. Oe of the first differeces ad cause for variatio that was idetified withi this study was that of fort size. The square footages of the forts costructed durig the Frech ad Idia War vary greatly with some forts beig small, uder 2,000 square feet, to others beig very large, exceedig oe millio square feet. O average, the British created the largest forts throughout the war with the Frech comig i secod. The sizes of those forts costructed by Coloial govermets ad private citizes teded to be smaller tha the forts costructed by the British ad Frech empires. That the Coloial forts, ad those forts costructed by private idividuals ted to be small ca be explaied i two ways: ) the costructors of these forts possessed miimal, if ay, kowledge of egieerig ad 2) the garrisos which were housed withi these forts were small ad did ot require large areas. Small degrees of variability were foud to exist i the pla ad layout styles favored durig this time period i additio to the costructio materials utilized i fort costructio. While the majority of the forts costructed durig this time period were heavily iflueced by those styles created by Vauba it is kow that some fort costructors did ot favor these styles. Withi the Coloial forts ad those forts costructed by private idividuals there is evidece of Vauba s styles beig used but may variatios of pla ad layout styles are kow to have existed. Withi the Coloial sectio of the database (Appedix B) several forts were idetified which did ot favor the styles of Vauba. These styles typically icluded structures which had bee fortified through modificatio such as fortified storehouse, farmstead, meetighouses ad eve fortified mills. These styles outumber the styles created by Vauba with 24 out of 32 forts idetified as beig Coloial i origi utilizig a pla ad layout style other tha those created by Vauba. Variatio was also foud to exist withi the costructio materials utilized durig this 6

169 time period. Although the preferred costructio material durig the Frech ad Idia War was wood, other materials were utilized to a lesser degree. As origially hypothesized, the forts costructed by the Coloial govermets were foud to be differet tha those forts costructed ot oly by the Frech but the British as well. The smaller size, pla ad layout styles, ad iterior structurig of the Coloial forts set them apart from their British ad Frech couterparts. The forts costructed by Coloials were foud to have bee outfitted with basic structures such as a powder magazie, a storage house, possibly a well ad a barracks for the garriso statioed there. There was o evidece foud of additioal structures such as hospitals, prisos, butcher s shops, blacksmith s shops or cook oves. Origially, it was believed that the forts costructed by private idividuals would also follow this patter, but as o maps were foud for these forts, a aalysis could ot be completed.

170 CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS It was the purpose of this thesis to create a typology of Pesylvaia s forts ad demostrate the uses of such a typology by comparig the groups withi Pesylvaia durig the Frech ad Idia War ad examiig the variability of 8 th cetury forts. Additioally the degree that these variatios related to treds of 8 th cetury societal ad techological treds was also examied. The ultimate goal of this research was to create a typology that would be useful for future Pesylvaia researchers ad that could also be used as a example for creatig other fort typologies. It was also a goal of this thesis to determie the degree to which the forts of the 8 th cetury were similar ad uique despite beig costructed by differig groups. This chapter will revisit the three research objectives ad preset cocludig commets o the results depicted i the previous chapter. At the ed of this chapter, the potetial for future work will be discussed. Research Objective : Develop a typology of Pesylvaia forts datig to the mid to late 8 th cetury. As a result of this research objective, the mai goal of this thesis, a typology was created for the forts located withi the Commowealth of Pesylvaia. Upo completio, the typology (Appedix B) icluded 3 forts withi Pesylvaia that were utilized i the aalyses for Research Objectives 2 ad 3. Additioally, 04 forts were idetified withi Pesylvaia that were ot placed withi the typology ad were ot cosidered durig the aalyses for the remaiig research objectives due to a lack of available iformatio or failure to meet the defiitio of fort created for this thesis. These forts, a majority of which were costructed by private idividuals, were missig iformatio such as the pla ad layout style used, the date the fort was costructed, where the fort was located, ad who costructed the fort. A majority of 8

171 these forts costructed by private idividuals ad a degree of the forts costructed by Coloial govermets were excluded because of the pla ad layout style used. These forts were foud to be pre-existig structures that were fortified through modificatio such as fortified farmhouses or mills. Other structures were blockhouses ad redoubts, which were excluded from this study. Forts idetified as a result of this study that were ot used i the aalyses were placed ito a comprehesive list, which is icluded i the appedices of this thesis (Appedix D ad E). While creatig the typology based o the Pesylvaia fort database (Appedix B) it was determied that the typology would be based o the attribute of group ad the degree of egieerig experiece possessed by the fort s plaer or costructor. This was doe whe o other attribute withi the database was foud to create discerable types. Based o the attribute of group, the forts were divided ito seve differet types: British, Frech, Coloial, Private, Pesylvaia, Coecticut, ad America. A typology was also made for forts outside of Pesylvaia (Appedix C), which icludes forts from withi the cotietal Uited States ad Caada. Oce the developed the typology was utilized for the aalyses doe for Research Objectives 2 ad 3. Research Objective 2: Coduct a compariso betwee all groups of forts datig to the Frech ad Idia War. The compariso was limited to the Frech ad Idia War because costructio methods for forts durig the latter part of the 8 th cetury were modified to accommodate the advacemets i artillery ad would ot allow for a cohesive compariso to earlier forts. Several treds were idetified for the Pesylvaia forts that idicate the huma behaviors that led to fort variability withi the 8 th cetury. Oe of the first treds that was 9

172 idetified was that the size of forts varied based o the group. The British forts were foud to have costructed the largest forts. The sheer size of the British forts is believed to be the result of the purpose for the costructio of these forts. The British bega costructig forts i 4 after armed coflict had resulted at the Battle of Fort Necessity. These forts, which favored the styles developed by Vauba, star forts ad irregular star forts, were built with the explicit purpose of protectig the frotiers ad settlemets of the British coloies, holdig strategic locatios which were either held by the British or gaied from the Frech, ad to house garrisos which would ot oly defed the frotier but could use the fort as a base for egagig the Frech i armed coflict. Alteratively, the Frech, whose forts cosistig almost exclusively out of star forts, were foud o average to be smaller tha British forts. It is believed that the Frech built smaller forts due to the earlier dates associated with Frech forts. The Frech bega costructig forts i the early 00s as they sought to expad their empire ito the frotier. These forts were ot costructed with a war i mid but rather to act as outposts claimig the frotier for the Frech. Forts costructed by Coloial govermets were foud to be o average smaller tha the forts costructed by the Frech ad were see to also favor the pla ad layout styles of Vauba although there is a icrease i the styles ot attributed to Vauba. The differece i size ad the variatios i the pla ad layout styles have bee attributed to a lack of egieerig experiece withi the forts plaers or costructors. Those forts costructed by private idividuals were foud to be the smallest ad were foud to favor styles ot iflueced by Vauba. This has bee attributed to limited familiarity i fort costructio. The attributes of locatio, distaces to waterways, pathways ad military roads ad fort size were also foud to be liked. It was determied that the locatios of these forts were chose based o the eed of the fort s costructor or egieer to cotrol a specific geographic locatio 60

173 which had bee deemed importat. Additioally, forts were also placed i areas where cotrol of trasportatio etworks could be guarateed ad utilized. This led to the creatio of three levels of forts withi the typology. Level forts were foud to be typically small, less tha 40,000 square feet, ad possessed access to oe waterway ad either oe pathway or military road. Level forts also possessed basic structures which have bee idetified as storehouses, powder magazies, a barracks ad possibly a well. Level 2 forts were larger tha the previous level but did ot exceed 80,000 square feet. Level 2 forts had access to at least oe waterway ad access to oe military road ad pathway or access to two pathways. Level 2 forts possessed the basic structure i additio to other structures such as bake oves, forges, saw mills ad segregated barracks for military persoel. Level 3 forts were the largest forts ecoutered withi the database ad exceeded 8,000 square feet i that cotrolled more tha four trasportatio etworks. Level 3 forts possessed a multitude of additioal structures such as hospitals, prisos, highly segregated barracks ad diig facilities for military persoel, ad quarters for wardes, iterpreters ad chaplais. A fial tred associated with the Frech ad Idia War forts of the 8 th cetury that exists for forts of all groups is the heavy reliace o wood as the primary costructio material. Forts costructed by the Frech, Coloial ad private idividuals oly used wood to build their forts. Variatio occurred withi the British forts by usig earth istead of wood i two cases i additio to usig a combiatio of buildig materials. This shows a heavy reliace o wood to build forts Pesylvaia, which was expected by the author as wood is a abudat atural resource withi the state. Research Objective 3: Use the Pesylvaia fort typology to examie variability amog 8 th cetury forts, ad examie how these variatios relate to treds i 8 th cetury society ad 6

174 techology. For the fial research objective, a group-based typology was created for the forts located outside of Pesylvaia (Appedix C). As with the Pesylvaia forts, several similarities ad variatios were idetified for the o-pesylvaia forts that hit at the huma behaviors which created the variability withi the forts of the Frech ad Idia War. These similarities ad variatios demostrate that the fort costructors ad plaers durig the mid-tolate 8 th cetury shared a workig kowledge of where a fort should be located, how it should look ad what costructio materials should be utilized i the buildig of the fort. It is kow from previous discussio withi this documet that the Frech ad Idia War was a war of locatio ad fortificatio. Military egieers had leared from either military schools or field experiece that cotrollig trasportatio etworks was paramout to promotig oe's success ad defeatig oe's eemies. These trasportatio etworks were ofte the strategic geographic locatios which required protectio. As a result, forts were erected to maitai such geographic locatios from ayoe who dared claim the locatio as their ow. Iitially, the Frech costructed forts to claim the frotier for themselves through the presece of troops, which would defed the ew territory should ayoe show iterest. These forts, though varyig i some ways ad beig coected by similarities i others, deote that the societies ad techologies of the 8 th cetury affected how forts were costructed ad where they were placed. As discussed previously withi this documet, after Vauba developed ad proved his method for fortificatio ad siegecraft, the pla ad layout styles he created quickly spread throughout Frace ad the ito other areas of Europe. As the sos of affluet families completed their lessos i military academies or as private idividuals educated themselves, the ideas formulated by Vauba i the late th cetury quickly became the orm. The military society s ideas o fortificatio ad siegecraft chaged ad as a result the techology 62

175 behid costructig forts chaged. As the styles remiiscet of Europe s castles faded ito history, a war of positio based o the idea of geometry was emergig, leadig to the costructio of forts with bastios, which could accurately defed portios of the icreasigly thicker curtai walls, the exterior walls located aroud a fort. Cultural treds of the 8 th cetury were also projected by the persoel who plaed the forts ad oversaw their costructio. Withi Level 2 ad 3 forts, a distict ad plaed segregatio of the fort s military persoel ca be see. As discussed previously withi this documet, this explicit ad iteded segregatio is a direct reflectio of the British ad Frech societies durig the Frech ad Idia War. As both empires fuctioed withi the costraits of hierarchical societies, the officers preset withi a fort were ofte from the elite class which cotrolled ad iflueced the govermets. The commo foot soldiers were usually members of lower classed society, either me who were without a trade or me who had exhausted optios withi their respective societies ad foud themselves facig imprisomet or elistmet. The elites ad the commoers did ot harbor feeligs of good will towards oe aother but typically viewed the other as iferior- the officer lookig dow upo the commoer for their lack of fortue ad coectio ad the foot soldier harborig feeligs of ill will towards the officers who ofte lacked practical field experiece. The cultural ad societal treds of the 8 th cetury were additioally see with the forts costructed durig the 8 th cetury i the form of churches. As discussed i Chapter, religious structures were foud withi three Frech forts which deotes the practice of Catholicism withi the forts. The British military also employed chaplais durig this time period, although chapels ad churches were ot foud withi ay forts other tha the Frech forts (MacGregor 20). It is probable that the Frech purposefully costructed religious buildigs withi their forts to 63

176 provide religious services ot oly for the fort s garriso but for the idividuals that the Frech, as Catholics, sought to covert to Catholicism. The British, who were members of the Church of Eglad, were ot as devoted to covertig Native Americas; it was udoubtedly deemed uecessary to costruct religious buildigs. The presece of these buildigs reflect the societal ad religious views of 8 th cetury. Through time as the techology ad methodology cocerig fortificatio ad warfare advaced the treds of 8 th cetury military society shifted. This was evideced i the maer i which forts were costructed, where they were placed, how large these forts were desiged to be, ad the types of structures cotaied withi them. To a degree, idividuals who created forts durig this time period shared a workig kowledge of what a fort was, how it was to look ad what structures eeded to be icluded iside. The plaers ad costructors of forts durig the 8 th cetury shared a workig defiitio of what a fort was per their ow societies ad backgrouds which had a direct correlatio o the ed result- the forts. Cocludig Remarks ad Future Work Through the course of this thesis several goals were achieved that have led to a better uderstadig of fort costructio durig the 8 th cetury. A group-based typology was created for all idetified forts withi the Commowealth of Pesylvaia from 4 through 90 i additio to the creatio of a list that icludes forts that were idetified throughout this project but did ot possess sufficiet iformatio to be placed withi the typology or utilized i the aalyses that followed. Through the demostratio of what types of questios such a typology could be used to aswer a examiatio was coducted i a attempt to determie the degree of variability preset withi the 8 th cetury forts of the Frech ad Idia War. As a result of 64

177 these comparisos, it was determied that miimal variatios existed withi these forts. Variatios occurred i the types of costructio materials utilized ad the preferred pla ad layout styles, but these variatios were slight. This lack of variatio shows that the military egieers of the 8 th cetury possessed a shared idea of what a fort was, where a fort should be located, what styles ad materials should be used to costruct these forts, ad what types of structures should be directly associated with these forts. While a umber of forts have bee idetified as a result of this project ad coclusios have bee reached, there exists a great potetial for future work with the typology created for this study. It is the authors' sicere hope that aother researcher will further this Pesylvaia typology to iclude the forts that were costructed after 90. The forts of the War of 82 ad the Civil War were excluded from this study as the possibility existed that fort styles might ot be cohesive. Durig the time betwee the Frotier War ad the War of 82 ad the Civil War, several advacemets were made i fortificatio ad chages were made i warfare i additio to advaces i artillery as techology advaced. While it is likely that these techological advaces ad subsequet chages i fortificatio styles will result i a typology that may ot be comparable with the typology geerated withi this study, the preset typology could serve as a model for later typologies geerated for Pesylvaia. A typology, icludig fortificatios created post 90 would also preset researchers with a tool that would make comparisos betwee fortificatios of the 8 th ad 9 th ceturies possible. The typology could additioally be used aswer questios about the variability of forts for other coflicts such as those of the Revolutioary War. While 4 forts datig to the Revolutioary War were idetified for this thesis, the forts located outside of Pesylvaia were ot cosidered or idetified. There is potetial for a future researcher to idetify forts located 6

178 outside of the state of Pesylvaia datig to the Revolutioary War ad the coduct aalyses, which would brig to light the degree of variatio withi the forts costructed i the latter part of the 8 th cetury. Furthermore, a similar project could be completed o the forts costructed durig the Frotier Coflict. Oly two forts were discovered to have bee costructed withi Pesylvaia state boudaries that date to this time period, but it is kow that may more forts exist withi what is ow Ohio ad Idiaa, which could be idetified ad studied. The author remais hopeful that the typology geerated for this thesis might also serve as a example for other states. Coflict archaeologists elsewhere withi the Uited States will udoubtedly fid fortificatio typologies a useful tool that could potetially lead to the developmet of ew typologies uique to idividual states. These typologies could be compared as a whole, which would further the kowledge of fortificatio styles withi the cotietal Uited States. With the creatio of additioal typologies, the gap existig i our atio s records regardig fortificatio will decrease as researchers geerate complete typologies specific for states ad regios. As more fortificatio typologies are completed researchers will be able to quickly ad adequately compare fortificatio styles ot oly by state ad regio but by coflict. There are udoubtedly other ways i which this research may be expaded upo, ad the author welcomes idividual researchers ad istitutios to use this fortificatio typology to further the kowledge of America forts. 66

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196 APPENDICES Appedix A - Coded Values for Pesylvaia ad No-Pesylvaia Forts Coded Values for Pesylvaia ad No-Pesylvaia Forts Attribute Code Pla ad Layout Star Fort 2 Irregular Star Fort 3 Square Fort 4 Stockaded Fort Ukow 6 Natioality/ Group British 2 Frech 3 Coloial 4 Private Square Footage Small less tha 40,000 square feet 2 Medium- less tha 40,000 but greater tha 3 80,000 square feet Large greater tha 8,000 square feet 4 Ukow Size Costructio Materials Wood 2 Stoe 3 Earth 4 Wood ad Stoe Wood ad Earth 6 Ukow Material Purpose for Costructio Militarized- British 2 Militarized- Frech 3 Militarized Coloial 4 Civilia/Private Civilia/Militarized Coloial 6 Militarized Coloial/British Vauba-Ispiratio Yes 2 No 3 Ukow Ispiratio 4 84

197 Appedix B Pesylvaia Typology Key for Appedix II: B- British FC- Frotier Coflict S- Star Fort F- Frech IS- Irregular Star Fort C- Coloial FI Frech ad Idia War Sq- Square Fort Pr- Private P- Potiac s War St- Stockade CT- Coecticutia YP- Yakee-Peamite War StS- Stockaded Star Fort PA- Pesylvaia R- Revolutioary War CSt- Circular Stockade Fort A America SqSt- Square Stockade Fort Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt A ug us ta Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S Gov eror Robe rt Morr is Built By Colo el Willi am Clap ham ad Majo r Jame s Burd Natioality Square Footage B 4, 6 6 Built Abadoed 6 / or 8 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d - Colo ial Locatio Sub ury, Noth umb erla d Cou ty Distace to Water Susqu eha a River -.08 Distace to Roads ot ear milit ary road Distace Paths 0.00 to Path ways Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See P? 89 4 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes yes yes I 894 the powde r magazi e remai ed itact. Refereces Buckalew 896:3, 360; Delle 2006: i, ; Huter 960: 43, 48, 492, 08; Grat 96:84; Stotz 200:0; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:89 8

198 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Be df or d Fo rt B ur d Fo rt Pr es qu e Isl e Fo rt H ali fa x Coflict FI Pla ad Layout Commissioed By IS Gov eror De y FI S Colo el Bou quet Built By Brig adier Ge eral Joh Forb es Colo el Jam es Burd ad? Ship pe FI Sq? Colo el Her y Bou quet FI S? Colo el Will iam Clap ham Natioality Square Footage B 6 3, 4 B 9, 0 6 Built 8 9 B? 6 B 2, Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? milit arize d - Briti sh D uri g Po ti ac' s W ar 63? milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Briti sh wa s dis m a tle d milit arize d- Colo ial Locatio Bedf ord, Bedf ord Bro ws ville, Faye tte Cou ty Erie, Erie Cou ty Halif ax, Dau phi Cou ty Distace to Water Dui g Creek -.02 Moo gahe la River -.49 Lake Erie -.9 Susqu eha a River -.6 Distace to Roads 0.00 to Forb es ot ear milit ary road ot ear milit ary road ot ear milit ary road Distace Paths.84 to Path way 0.00 to Path way 0.00 to Path way 2.8 to Path way Re-Use P Costructio Materials Last See w oo d Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? yes yes Fort Raysto w?? o yes Someti mes referre d to as Redsto e Old Fort Refereces Grat 96:8; Keedy 2004:, 8; Stotz 200: 3; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:90; Weiser 896:46 Albert 96: ;Huter 960: 42; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:92??? yes Albert 96:2; Bruce 96:83; Huter 960: 6-62,8 ;Stotz 200:3 e ar th 6 3 yes yes Waddell ad Bomberger 996:89 86

199 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt H a mi lto Fo rt Ju i at a Cr os si g Fo rt le B oe uf Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Built By FI IS? Capt ais Tru mp ad Asht o FI IS? Capt ai Harr y Gor do Natioality Square Footage B 6, B 2 0, Built 8 a d 6 3 FI S?? B? 6 0 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Colo ial?? milit arize d- Briti sh 63? milit arize d - Briti sh Locatio Stro udsb urg, Mo roe Cou ty East Prov ide ce Tow shi p, Bedf ord Cou ty Wat erfor d, Erie Cou ty Distace to Water McMi chael Creek -. Juiat a River -.0 LeBo uef Creek -.04 Distace to Roads ot ear milit ary road 0.00 to Forb es ot ear milit ary road Distace Paths 2. to Path way.60 to Path way 0.00 to Path way Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces??? yes Huter 960: 22; Richards 896:300; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:83 w o o d 6 3? yes Stotz 200: 0, 2; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:93??? yes Grat 96:83; Huter 960: 9, 8, 8; Stotz 200:42; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:4,94 8

200 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Le ba o Fo rt Li go i er Fo rt Ly tte lto Coflict FI FI Pla ad Layout Commissioed By St Gov eror Morr is St S Gee ral Joh Forb es FI S Gov eror Robe rt Morr is Built By Colo el Cor ad Weis er/ Capt ai Jaco b Morg a Colo el Jam es Burd Geor ge Crog ha Natioality Square Footage B 0, B 2, B 0, Built o r 6 8 Abadoed or / 6 3 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Colo ial 9 milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Colo ial/ Briti sh Locatio Aub ur, Schu ylkil l Cou ty Ligo ier, West more lad Cou ty NE of Fort Littl eto, Fult o Cou ty Distace to Water Schuy lkill River -.06 Loyal haa Creek -.0 Little Augh wick Creek -.32 Distace to Roads ot ear milit ary road 0.00 to Forb es 0.00 to Forb es Distace Paths.6 to Path way.98 to Path way.3 to Path way Re-Use P Costructio Materials Last See? 89 w oo d w o o d 6 6 3? Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? o Fort Willia m yes yes Post at Loyalh aa/ Fort Royalh aa? yes Fort Littleto Refereces Richards 896:2,2,33-34; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8 Albert 96:2; Grat 96: 8: Grimm 90; Stotz 200: 20; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:90 Grat 96:8; Huter 960: 36, 40-4, 4; Stotz 200: 0; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8, 94; Weiser 896: 88

201 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Lo ud ou Fo rt M or ris Fo rt N ec es sit y Coflict FI Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Sq Gee ral Joh Forb es FI S Gov eror Robe rt Morr is FI C St Geor ge Wash igto Built By Colo el Joh Arm stro g Colo el Jam es Burd Geor ge Was hig to Natioality Square Footage B 6, Built 6 B? B 2, Abadoed 6 9 Years Abadoed?? N/ A Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Colo ial/ Briti sh? milit arize d- Colo ial milit arize d- Briti sh/c oloi al Locatio Near villa ge of Fort Lou do, Fra kli Cou ty Ship pes burg, Cum berla d Cou ty Far mig to, Faye tte Cou ty Distace to Water W Brac h of Cooc ochea gue Creek -. Gum Ru -. ad Burd Ru -.3 Big Sady Creek -.69 Distace to Roads 0.00 to Forb es 0.00 to Forb es 0.00 to Bra ddo ck Distace Paths.26 to Path way.96 to Path way 0.00 to Path way Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See w o o d S to e a d w o o d w o o d 6?/ Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes yes o Fort outlie see i 896 Refereces Babits ad Gadulla 203:8-8; Deto 980: 2, 3; Grat 96:84; Heberlig 99: ; Huter 960: 463, 480; Stotz 200:0; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:40, 8, 94; Weiser 896:3? o Huter 960:, 40, 46; SDHM d; Weiser 896:4 yes o Harrigto 9:6-8, 9-24; Huter 960:2-9; Stotz 200: 9-9; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:3; 89

202 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt N ort hk ill Fo rt Pit t Fo rt Sh irl ey Coflict FI FI Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Built By Sq? Capt S ai Jaco b Mor ga IS Gee ral Joh Forb es FI S Gov eror Morr is Colo el Her y Bou quet or Harr y Gor do Geor ge Crog ha Natioality Square Footage B, B 9, Built 6 9 B? Abadoed 66 /R ev W ar 6 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Colo ial? milit arize d- Briti sh? Priv ate/ milit arize d- Colo ial Locatio NW of Shar tlesv ille, Berk s Cou ty Pitts burg h, Alle ghe y Cou ty Shirl eysb urg, Hut igd o Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uko w Alleg hey River -.3, Moo gahe la River -., Ohio River -.23 Augh wick Creek -.2 Distace to Roads exac t loca tio uk ow 0.00 to Forb es, 6.03 to Bra ddo ck ot ear milit ary road Distace Paths exac t locat io uk ow 0.00 to Path way 0.00 to Path way Re-Use P / R Costructio Materials Last See? 89 e ar th w o o d 6 9 2? 6 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? o Fort Babel? yes yes Fort Dum ore Refereces Richards 896:00,88; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8 Dahliger 922:9, 64; Grat 96: 83; Stotz 200: 2, 34, 39; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:90 yes yes Huter 960: 3, 36, 394, 402; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:88 90

203 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt V e a go M er ce r's Fo rt Fo rt Pe Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built FI IS? Maj B? or 6 Rob ert 0 Stew art FI S?? B? R? Nort ham pto Cou ty Colo el Jaco b Stro ud Br iti sh 8? 8? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? milit arize d- Briti sh 9 re pl ac ed by Pit t milit arize d- Briti sh?? Priv ate Locatio Fra kli, Ve ago Cou ty Pitts burg h, Alle ghe y Cou ty Nort ham pto Cou ty Distace to Water Dry Ru -. Alleg hey River -.3, Moo gahe la River -., Ohio River -.23 McMi chael Creek -.04 Distace to Roads ot ear milit ary road 0.00 to Forb es, 6.03 to Bra ddo ck ot ear milit ary road Distace Paths.6 to Path way 0.00 to Path way 2. to Path way Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See w o o d Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? yes Replac ed Fort Macha ult Refereces Albert 96:9,92-93; Grat 96:83; Huter 960: ; Stotz 200: 4; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:96??? yes Albert 96:99-9; Stotz 200:2-2; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:94???? Richards 896:328 9

204 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name Fo rt de la Pr es qu e Isl e Coflict FI S Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Go ver o r Du qu es e Built By Cap tai Che vali er Fra coi s Le Mer cier Natioality Square Footage Built F? 3 Abadoed 9 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio mil itar ize d - Fre ch Locatio Erie, Erie Cou ty Distace to Water Lake Erie -.9 Distace to Roads ot e ar mil itar y roa d Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hwa y Re-Use Costructio Materials woo d Last See 9 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? yes Fort de la Presqu i sle. Later garriso ed by British through at least 8. Refereces Albert 96:2; Bruce 96:83; Huter 960: 6-62,8 ;Stotz 200:3 Fo rt D uq ue s e FI S Go ver o r Du qu es e Cap tai Fra çoi s Le Mer cier F 6, mil itar ize d - Fre ch Pitts burg h, Alle ghe y Cou ty Allegh ey River -.0, Moo gahel a River -.0, Ohio River to For bes, to Bra ddo ck to Pat hwa y woo d 8 yes yes Sometim es called Fort Due Quese Albert 96:44; Huter 960: 9, 0, 3; Stotz 200:8, 8; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:4 92

205 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name Fo rt De La Ri vi èr e A u Bo eu f Fo rt M ac ha ult Coflict FI S Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Ca a dia Go ver o r Du qu ese Built By Cap tai Fra çoi s Le Mer cier FI S? Cap tai Cha bert de Jo cair e Natioality Square Footage Built F? 3 F? 3 Abadoed 9 9 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? mil itar ize d- Fre ch? mil itar ize d- Fre ch Locatio Wat erfo rd, Erie Cou ty Fra kli, Ve ag o Distace to Water LeBo uef Cree k -.04 Dry Ru -. Distace to Roads ot e ar mil itar y roa d ot e ar mil itar y roa d Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hwa y.6 to Pat hwa y Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See? 6 3 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? yes Fort De La Rivière Au Boeuf. Take over by British. Refereces Grat 96:83; Huter 960: 9, 8, 8;Stotz 200:42; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:4,94??? yes Albert 96:8; Huter 960: 36, 39, 6; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:4 93

206 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt Al le Fo rt Ch a m be rs Fo rt De shl er Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI IS FI Stoc kad ed Fort ified Hou se ad Mill FI Fort ified Blo ckh ouse ad Barr acks Commissioed By Be jam i Fra kli Be jam i Cha mp ers Ada m Des hler Built By Natioality Square? C 6,2 Be jam i Cha mbe rs Ada m Des hler 0 Built 6 C? 6 C? 6 0 s Abadoed 6 3 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio 2 4 mil itar ize d- Co lo ial?? Pri vat e/ mil itar ize d- Co lo ial?? mil itar ize d- Co lo ial Locatio Weis sport, Carb o Cou ty ear Cha mber sbur g, Fra kli Cou ty Alle tow, Lehi gh Cou ty Distace to Water Lehi gh River -.0 Big Beav er Cree k -.03 Lehi gh River -.06 Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y to Pa th wa y 3. to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials P pres uma bly woo d Last See 8 Excavated o Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces yes Huter 960: , 492; Stotz 200:06; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:32, 82???? Weiser 896:2-29 sto e 8 9 6? o Also referred to as Deshler's Fort Richards 896:

207 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt Ev er ett Fo rt Fr a kli Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Stoc kad ed Fort ified Far mho use FI Sq Commissioed By Be jam i Fra kli Be jam i Fra kli Built By Cap tai Wet terh olt Cap tai Cha rles Fou lk Natioality Square Footage Built C? C, Abadoed 8 6 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio NW of Ly por t, Lehi gh Cou ty Sout h of Syd er, Syd er Cou ty Distace to Water Otel aue e Cree k -.3 Lizar d Cree k -. Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use.4 to Pa th wa y to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? o possible blockhous e??? yes Fort above Allemagl e Refereces Huter 960:29; Richards 896:42, 4, 4; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:84 Huter 960: 29; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:2; Richards 896:34-36; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:83 9

208 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt Fr a kli Fo rt Ge or ge Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Fort ified Blo ckh ouse FI Stoc kad ed Fort ified Far mho use Commissioed By Go ver or Tho mas Jam es Patt erso Jui or Built By Natioality Square Footage Built? C? 4 Jam es Patt erso Jui or 0 C? / Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial 6? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio ear Ship pes burg, Cum berla d Cou ty Near Mex ico, Jui ata Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow Juia ta River -.0 Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials Last See? 9 woo d Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? Not previous Fort 0 Frakli. Tor dow i 90. May ot have existed.?? o Fort Patterso Refereces North America Forts 204e; Weiser 896:8-9 Huter 960:3-38; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:86; Weiser 896:93, 96,

209 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt Gr a vil le Fo rt Ha rri s Fo rt He r y Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By FI StS Go ver or Rob ert Mo rris FI Fort ified Far mho use FI Fort ified Far mho use Joh Har ris, Jr. Cap tai Chr istia Bus se Built By Geo rge Cro gha Joh Har ris, Jr. Diet rick Six Natioality Square Footage Built C? 6 C? o r 6 C? 6 Abadoed 6 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial?? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial 9?? Priv ate/ mili tariz ed- Col oia l Locatio SW of Lewi stow, Miff li Cou ty Harr isbur g, Dau phi Cou ty Beth el, Berk s Cou ty Distace to Water Juia ta River -.2 exact locati o uk ow Calic o Cree k -.30 Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y ex act loc ati o u k ow 3. 6 to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces??? o Huter 960: 383, 38; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8??? o Kelker 90:89; Richars 896:6- woo d ad sto e??? Busse's Fort Grat 96:8; Huter 960: 39, 329; Richards 896:48; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8 9

210 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt H u ter Fo rt H y ds ha w Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Stoc kad ed Gris t Mill Commissioed By Sa mu el Hu ter FI SqS Be jam i Fra kli Built By Sa mue l Hu ter Jam es Hy dsh aw ad Joh Va Ette Natioality Square Footage Built C? o r 6 C? 6 Abadoed / 8 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio N of Harr isbur gh, Dau phi Cou ty ear Bush kill, Pike Cou ty Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.0 Bush Kill River -.2 Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y. 2 to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes??? o Huter's Mill/ Captai McKee's Fort. Refereces Grat 96:8; Huter 960: 30-3, 0-06; Motgomery 96:9,3,2; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8???? Huter 960:266, 20; Richards 896:300-30,

211 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt Le hi gh Fo rt M a ad a Fo rt N orr is Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Fort ified Blo ckh ouse FI Stoc kad ed Buil dig FI IS Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built?? C? Sett lers Go ver or Rob ert Mo rris Sett lers Be jam i Fra kli C? C 6, Abadoed 8 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? mi lita riz ed - Co lo ial? mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio Near Peter svill e, Nort ham pto Cou ty East Ha over Tow shi p, Dau phi Cou ty Mo roe Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow Bow Cree k -.68 Midd le Cree k -.33 Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow 6. 3 to Pa th wa y to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces???? Huter 960: ; Richards 896:6; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:84???? Brow's Fort or Fort Brow Huter 960: 340, 343, 2 ; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:8??? yes Huter 960: 226, 233; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:2; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:83 99

212 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fo rt S wa tar a A da m Di etz 's Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI SqS t FI Stoc kad ed Blo ckh ouse Commissioed By Pet er Hed rick Ada m Die tz Built By Pete r Hed rick Ada m Diet z Natioality Square Footage Built C? 6 C? 6 Abadoed 8 8 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e a d mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio NW of Lick dale, Leba o Cou ty SE of Wi d Gap, Nort ham pto Distace to Water Swat ara Cree k -.6 exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use 9. to Pa th wa y ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes???? Smith's Fort??? o Adam Teet's Refereces Huter 960: , 340; Richards 896:48; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:86 Huter 960:2-282; Richards 896:23; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:83 200

213 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name A da m Re ed' s Ca rli sle Fo rt M cd o we ll's Mi ll Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Stoc kad ed Far mho use Commissioed By Ada m Ree d Built By Ada m Ree d Natioality Square Footage Built C? FI St?? C? FI Fort ified Mill Joh Mc Do wel l Joh Mc Do well 6 C? Abadoed 8 8 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? Pri vat e/ mil itar ize d- Col oi al Locatio b/t East Ha over ad Oo, Dau phi Cou ty Carli sle, Cum berla d Cou ty ear Mar kes, Fra kli Cou ty Distace to Water Swat ara Cree k -. Letor t Spri g Ru -.40 Bow ery Ru -.8 Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road 0.00 to For bes ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y to Pa th wa y.2 6 to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? o Huter 960:344-34, 360; Kelker 90:92??? o Fort Carlise/ Fort Lowther???? Fort McDowell Waddell ad Bomberger 996:86; Weiser 896:08-09, Bates ad Fraise 88:64; Huter 960: 424, 426; Waddell ad Bomberger 996: 8 20

214 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name M ck ee' s St or e Ni ck las z O bli g er' s Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Fort ified Stor e ad Hou se FI Stoc kad ed Far mho use Commissioed By Tho mas Mc Kee Nic klas z Obl ig er Built By Tho mas Mc Kee Nic klas z Obl ige r Natioality Square Footage Built C?? Abadoed 6? C??? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio ear Dau phi, Dau phi Cou ty Palm erto, Carb o Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials woo d woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? o Huter 960:49-49, 498; Kelker 90:9; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:89?? o Upliger's Fort Huter 960:293; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:84 202

215 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Tr e t's Fo rt Tr uc ke r's Mi ll Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Fort ified Stor eho use Commissioed By Ohi o Co mp ay of Vir gii a Built By Cap tai Wil lia m Tre t Natioality Square Footage Built C? 4 Abadoed 4 FI Mill?? C?? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e a d mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial? Pri vat e a d mi lita riz ed- Co lo ial Locatio Pitts burg h, Alle ghe y Cou ty Slati gto, Lehi gh Cou ty Distace to Water Alleg hey River -.0, Mo oga hela River -.0, Ohio River -.3 Lehi gh River -.3, Trout Cree k -.0 Distace to Road 0.00 to For bes, 6.03 to Bra ddo ck ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y.0 to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials woo d woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes??? Fort Price George, This fort was also ever completed?? o Drucker's, Drocker's/ Ker's Mill Refereces Huter 960:43, 4; McGregor 200:22; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:2 Huter 960:289, 292; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:84 203

216 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name Fl ou rb ag Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow P Barr icad e Commissioed By Built By? Col oel He ry Bou quet Type Four- Private Group Natioality Square Footage Built C? 6 3 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? mil itar ize d- Co lo ial Locatio Jea ette, West more lad Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces???? Grat 96:8-86 Fort Name Fo rt Le tor t Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Fort ified Dw elli g Commissioed By Jam es Let ort Built By Jam es Let ort Natioality P r Square Footage Built? 3 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e Locatio ear Carli sle, Cum berla d Cou ty Distace to Water Letor t Spri g Ru -.08 Distace to Road.620 to For bes Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces???? Weiser 896:20 204

217 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Fo rt M cc or d Fo rt Pa tte rs o Fo rt Ro bi s o Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI St FI Stoc kad ed Far mho use FI Stoc kad ed Blo ckh ouse Commissioed By Wil lia m Mc Cor d Jam es Patt erso Se ior Geo rge Rob iso Built By Wil lia m Mc Cor d Jam es Patt erso Se ior Geo rge Rob iso Natioality P r P r P r Square Footage Built? 6?? Abadoed 6 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Fra kli Cou ty Near Mex ico, Jui ata Cou ty Hai es Twp, Perr y Cou ty Distace to Water Pequ ea Cree k -.6 Juia ta River -.0 Bixle r Ru -.02 Distace to Road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use to Pa th wa y to Pa th wa y to Pa th wa y Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces???? North America Forts 204d; Weiser 896:42-43 woo d?? o Fort George would later be built here.?? y es o Sometime s spelled Robiso or Robeso. Sometime s called George Robiso. Huter 960:3-38; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:86; Weiser 896:93, 96, 600 Fowler 200; Weiser 896:6-62, 6, 68 20

218 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Fo rt St eel Mi ll at Fri ed e sth al Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Stoc kad ed Mee tig Hou se FI Stoc kad ed ad Fort ified Ho mes tead ad Mill Commissioed By Rev ere d Ste el Built By Rev ere d Stee l Natioality P r Square Footage?? P r 00 Built?, Abadoed 6 3 o r Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e? Pri vat e Locatio ear Mer cers burg, Fra kli Cou ty Nort ham pto Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials Last See? 6 3 or 6 4 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? Revered Steel's Fort Refereces Bates ad Fraise 88:66; Weiser 896:0, 4??? o Richards 896:

219 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Na za ret h St oc ka de Sa m ue l D up ui' s Fo rt Fo rt Ha rts og Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow FI Fort ified Hou se FI Stoc kad ed Far mho use R? Commissioed By Built By Natioality?? P r 4 0, Sa mu el Du pui settl ers Sa mue l Dup ui settl ers P r P r Square Footage 2 0 Built? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio??? Pri vat e? 8 8? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Nort ham pto Cou ty ear Sha we e, Mo roe Cou ty Mark leysb urg, Fayet te Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow ex act loc ati o u k ow exa ct loc atio uk o w Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes??? o Whitefield House woo d?? o Samuel Depues Fort Refereces Richards 896:2,263 Huter 960:2-22; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:83???? Weiser 896:6 20

220 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Fo rt Re ed Fo rt Ri ffl e Al le 's Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R IS R Fort ified Mee tig Hou se? R Stoc kad ed Far mho use Commissioed By citi ze s of Ha ast ow Nic hol as Riff le Joh All e Built By citiz es of Ha ast ow Nic hola s Riff le Joh Alle Natioality P r P r P r Square Footage, 6 6 Built 6? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e???? Pri vat e? 8?? Pri vat e Locatio ear Gree sbu rg, West more lad Cou ty Nich olso Twp, Wyo mig Cou ty Smit h Twp, Was higt o Cou ty Distace to Water Crabt ree Cree k -.46 exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road.92 to For bes Roa d exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use 2.9 to Pa th wa y ex act loc ati o u k ow ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials woo d woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces? y es o Albert 96:29, ?? o Very little iformatio available o this fort. Albert 96:393???? Albert 96:48; Crumrie 882:3,

221 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Ch err y's Fo rt Cr aft 's Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Far mho use Commissioed By? Che rry Joh Cra ft Built By? Che rry Joh Cra ft Natioality P r P r Square Footage Built? 4? 3 o r 4 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Mou t Plea sat Twp, Was higt o Cou ty ear Merr ittsto w, Faye tte Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials woo d woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? o Albert 96:429; Crumrie 882:4?? o Albert 96:

222 Type Four Private Group Fort Name Co x's Fo rt Di llo w' s Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Fort ified Stati o R Fort ified Far mho use Commissioed By Gab riel Cox Mic hael Dill ow Built By Gab riel Cox Mic hael Dill ow Natioality P r P r Square Footage Built? 8? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Peter s Twp, Was higt o Cou ty Ha over Twp, Was higt o Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths Re-Use ex act loc ati o u k ow ex act loc ati o u k ow Costructio Materials woo d woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? o Possible Statio, Coxe's Fort, Coxe's Statio?? o Dillar's Fort Refereces Albert 96: Albert 96:4-46; Crumrie 882:804 20

223 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name H oa gl a d's Fo rt Ja ck so 's Fo rt Li d le y's Fo rt Coflict R? Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R Fort ified Far mho use or Mill Commissioed By He ry Hoa gla d? Jac kso Dem as Lid ley ad Jack Coo k Built By He ry Hoa gla d? Jac kso Dem as Lid ley ad Jack Coo k Type Four- Private Group Natioality P r P r P r Square Footage Built? 9?? 4? 8? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Smit h Twp, Was higt o Cou ty Boro ugh of Way esb urg, Gree Cou Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow Purm a Ru -.26 ty? exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths exa ct loc atio uk o w to Pat hw ay exac t locat io uk ow Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces??? o Albert 96:48 wo od wo od?? o Albert 96:43-438?? o Albert 96:40-4; Crumrie 882:843 2

224 Fort Name M as o' s Fo rt N orr is' Fo rt Ol d Ga rri so Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Fort ified Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Blo ckh ouse Commissioed By Joh Ma so Wil lia m Nor ris Built By Joh Mas o Wil lia m Nor ris Natioality P r P r Square Footage Built? 4? 4?? P r? 9 6 Abadoed e v er Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio 0 Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Pri vat e Locatio Mas oto w, Faye tte Cou ty Was higt o Cou ty Ve ago, Ve ago Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Alleg hey River -.00 Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths exa ct loc atio uk o w exa ct loc atio uk o w to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od wo od wo od a d sto e Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? o Still existed i 96 as a private home Refereces Albert 96:39?? o Albert 96:429??? Was coverted to a jail i 80. Abadoe d i 89. Albert 96:

225 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Pa lm er' s Fo rt S we ari g e' s Fo rt W all ac e's Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Blo ckh ouse Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built?? P r? 4?? P r? Ric har d Wal lace Ric har d Wal lace P r 4? 4 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e 8 3? Pri vat e Locatio Fairf ield Twp, West more lad Cou ty Spri ghil l Twp, Gree e Cou ty Derr y Twp, West more lad Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths exa ct loc atio uk o w exa ct loc atio uk o w exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od wo od a d ear th wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? o Sometime s called Fort Palmer Refereces Albert 96:38?? o Albert 96:393?? o Albert 96:344, 346, 32 23

226 Type Four Private Group Fort Name W ell' s Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed Far mho use or Mill Commissioed By Ale xa der Wel ls Built By Ale xa der Wel ls Natioality P r Square Footage Built? 8 2? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e Locatio Cros s Cree k Twp, Was higt o Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow Distace to Road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? o Albert 96:42 Type Five- Pesylvaia Group Fort Name Fo rt W yo mi g Coflict Y P Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Sq? Am os Ogd e Natioality Square Footage Built P? Abadoed 3? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio 3 Pri vat e Locatio Wilk es- Barre, Luze re Cou ty Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.0 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials R wo od Last See 6 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? Reyolds 896:4 24

227 Type Six- Coecticutia Group Fort Name Fo rt D ur ke e Coflict Y P Pla ad Layout Kow Fort ified Blo ckh ouse Commissioed By Citi ze s of the Wy omi g Val ley Built By Joh Dur kee Natioality Square Footage Type Six- Coecticutia Group Built Abadoed C T? 69? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e Locatio Wilk es- Barr e, Luze re Cou ty Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.09 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? Grat 96:86; Reyolds 896: Fort Name Fo rt W all e pa up ac k Coflict Y P Pla ad Layout Kow Stoc kade d Bloc khou se ad Guar d Hou se Commissioed By Co ect icut settl ers Built By Co ect icut settl ers Natioality Square Footage Built Abadoed C T? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e Locatio Palm yra Tow shi p, Pike Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow Distace to Roads exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces??? o Reyods 896:44-4 2

228 Type Six- Coecticutia Group Fort Name Je k i' s Fo rt Fo rty Fo rt Pit tst o Fo rt Coflict Y P Y P Y P Pla ad Layout Kow Stoc kad ed Far mho use Stoc kad ed Star Fort Gro upi g of 30 Hou ses Commissioed By Joh Je kis Co ect icut settl ers Built By Jo k Je kis Co ect icut settl ers Natioality Square Footage Built Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio C T?? Pri 8 vat 6 e C T? 0 /?? C T? 6? 2/ 8? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Boro ugh of Stur merv ille, Luze re Cou ty Wilk es- Barr e, Luze re Cou ty Borou gh of Sturm erville, Luzer e Cout y Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.04 Susq ueha a River -. Susq ueha a River -.0 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths.3 6 to Pat hw ay 2.4 to Pat hw ay. 2 to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See? wo od 8 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? o Fort Jekis Refereces Reyolds 896:44-446?? o Reyolds 896: , ??? o Reyolds 896:

229 Type Six- Coecticutia Group Fort Name Sh aw e e Fo rt W ilk es- Ba rre Fo rt W it er m oo t's Fo rt Coflict Y P Y P Y P Pla ad Layout Kow Stoc kad ed Far mho use Stoc kad ed Far mho use Stoc kad ed Far mho use Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built Abadoed?? C T???? C T? Wi ter mo ot Fa mil y Wi ter mo ot Fa mil y Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio 6 Pri vat e? Pri vat e C T?? Pri 8 vat 6 e Locatio Sha we e Tow shi p, Luze re Cou ty Wilk es- Barr e, Luze re Cou ty Borou gh of Sturm ervill e, Luzer e Cout y Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.39 Susq ueha a River -.04 exact locati o uk ow Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths 2. 0 to Pat hw ay 2. 4 to Pat hw ay exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See? 8 4? 8? 8 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces? o Reyolds 896:449-40? o Reyolds 896: ? o Reyolds 896:

230 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt A t es Fo rt Ar ms tro g Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R St Commissioed By Built By? Lie ute at Col oel He ry At es Ge eral Wa shi gto Lie ute at Col oel Bay ard Natioality Square Footage Built A? 8 A? 9 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a 8?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a Locatio Jerse y Shor e, Lyco mig Cou ty ear Kitta i g, Arm stro g Cou ty Distace to Water W. Bra ch of Susq ueha a River Alleg hey River -.2 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces???? Buckalew 896: wo od 9? o Albert 96:468, 4-46; Smith 883:32 28

231 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt A ug ust a Fo rt Bo sle y Coflict R S Pla ad Layout Kow R Fort ified Mill Commissioed By Go ver or Rob ert Mo rris Mr. Bos ley Built By Col oel Will iam Cla pha m ad Maj or Jam es Bur d Mr. Bos ely Natioality A 4, Square Footage 6 6 Built A? 3 / Abadoed 6 / o r 8 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? mi lita riz ed - A me ric a?? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- A me ric a Locatio Sub ury, Nort hum berla d Cou ty Mo tour Cou ty Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.08 Chilli squa qua Cree k -.0 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ays to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? y es yes I 894 the poweder magazie was itact.? 89 6? o Bosley' Mill. Portios of mill i use i 896. Refereces Buckalew 896:3, 360; Delle 2006: i, ; Huter 960: 43, 48, 492, 08; Grat 96:84; Stotz 200:0; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:89 Buckalew 896:

232 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt Br ad y Fo rt Cr aw for d Fo rt Fr a kli Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R St R S Commissioed By Cap tai Joh Bra dy We ster Dep art me t We ster Dep art me t Built By Cap tai Joh Bra dy Wil lia m Cra wfo rd Cap tai Joh ath Hea rt Natioality Square Footage Built A? A? A 00? 8 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a 9 6?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a Locatio Mu cy, Lyco mig Cou ty o Alle ghe y Rive r Fra kli, Ve ago Distace to Water Glad e Ru -.0 exact locati o uk ow Frec h Cree k -.03 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay exa ct loc atio uk o w.6 to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes???? Possibility this is also Fort Mucy wo od wo od a d ear th Refereces Buckalew 896:38-388?? o Albert 96:33, ?? yes Albert 96:94-9, 9-98; Gaff 2004:2 220

233 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt Fr eel a d Fo rt H or Fo rt Je k is Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Fort ified Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Far mho use R Stoc kad ed Far mho use Commissioed By Jac ob Fre ela d Sa mu el Hor Mr. Je kis Built By Jac ob Fre ela d Sa mue l Hor Mr. Je kis or Col oel Har tley Natioality Square Footage Built A? 3 / 8 A? A 4,8 0 0 Abadoed 9 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Pri vat e Locatio locat ed o Warr ior Ru, Nort hum berla d Cou ty??? Clit o Cou ty 8 0? Pri vat e/m ilita rize d- Am eric a Borou gh of Sturm ervill e, Luzer e Cout y Distace to Water Dry Ru -.06 Susq ueha a River -.0 Susq ueha a River -.04 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay 3. 6 to Pat hw ay.3 6 to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See? wo od wo od 9 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces? o Buckalew 896:38-38, 384?? o Buckalew 896: s? o Palisade etrechm ets still visible. Buckalew 896:363,36, 33 22

234 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt le Bo ue f Fo rt M ci t os h Fo rt M e i g er Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built R S?? A? 9 R S Ge eral Lac hla McI tos h Le Che vali er de Ca mbr ay A 8 6, R??? A? 6? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a mi lita riz ed- A me ric a? Pri vat e Locatio Wat erfor d, Erie Cou ty Beav er, Beav er Cou ty Whit e Deer Cree k Distace to Water LeBo uef Cree k -.04 Ohio River -.0 exact locati o uk ow Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay 4. mil es to Pat hw ay exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces??? yes Grat 96:83; Huter 960: 9, 8, 8;Stotz 200:42; Waddell ad Bomberger 996:4,94 wo od 9 y e s yes Albert 96:488; Agew 899:; Carver 993; Graham 932:93,???? Buckalew 896:

235 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt Mi ffl i Fo rt M u cy Fo rt M u cy Coflict R S Pla ad Layout Kow R Stoc kad ed ad Fort fied Blo ckh ouse R Stoc kad ed Blo ckh ouse Commissioed By Ge eral Tho mas Gag e Sa mu el Wal lis, Esq Built By Cap tai Joh Mo tré sor Col oel Tho mas Har tley? Col oel Da iel Bro dhe ad Natioality Square Footage A 44, Built A? 6 9 A? 8 Abadoed Years Abadoed o e o e o e Purpose for Costructio mi lita riz ed - A me ric a Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- A me ric a mil itar ize d- Am eric a Locatio Phila delp hia, Phila delp hia Cou ty Mu cy, Lyco mig Cou ty Mu cy, Lyco mig Cou ty Distace to Water Dela ware River -.02 Glad e Ru -.0 Glad e Ru -.0 Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths ot ea r pat hw ay to Pat hw ay to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials ear th a d wo od sto e a d wo od sto e a d wo od Last See sti ll ex ist s Excavated y e s Vauba Ispired yes Notes?? o Destroyed i 8 ad was the rebuilt. 8 2? o Replaced the first Fort Mucy. Destroyed 82 Refereces Dorwart 998:6, 2, 28, 6, 6 Buckalew 896: Buckalew 896:

236 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt Pi pe r Fo rt Pr es er va tio Fo rt Re id Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Fort ified Far mho use Commissioed By Col oe l Joh Pip er Built By Col oel Joh Pip er R S? Alb ert St. Clai r R Fort ified Far mho use Wil lia m Rei d Wil lia m Rei d Natioality Square Footage Built A? A? 4 A? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a?? Pri vat e/m ilita rize d- Am eric a Locatio ort hwes t of Ever ett, Bedf ord Cou ty Ligo ier, West more lad Cou ty Lock Hav e, Clit o Cou ty Distace to Water exact locati o uk ow exact locati o uk ow Susq ueha a River -.0 Distace to Roads exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths exa ct loc atio uk o w exa ct loc atio uk o w 3. 6 to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials sto e a d wo od wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? o Still stadig i 896.?? o Fort Ramseyto w. Possibly a portio of Fort Ligoier Refereces Weiser 896:490 Albert 96: , 2-22??? o Buckalew 896:4 224

237 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt Ri ce Fo rt Ro be rd ea u Fo rt Ro lle r Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow R Fort ified Blo ckh ouse R S R Fort ified Far mho use Commissioed By Built By? Cap tai Wil lia m Ric e Ge eral Da iel Rob erd aeu Jac ob Rol ler Ge eral Da iel Rob erda eu Jac ob Roll er Natioality Square Footage Built A? 9 A? 8 A? o r 8 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a? Pri vat e?? Pri vat e Locatio Nort hum berla d Cou ty ear Tyro e, Blair Cou ty ear Holli days burg, Blair Cou ty Distace to Water Dry Ru -.06 Little Juia ta River -.29 exact locati o uk ow Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay to Pat hw ay exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials sto e a d wo od wo od wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? Sometime s called Fort Motgom ery.?? Powder magazie visible i 880. Refereces Buckalew 896:3-380; Mast 202:0 Fort Roberdeau 204; Weiser 896:499-03?? o Sell 9:29; Weiser 896:

238 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt St a di g St o e Fo rt S wa rtz Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built R St?? A? 6 R Fort ified Blo ckh ouse?? Lie ute at Chr istia God frie d Swa rtz 2 / 8 A? 8 0? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? Pri vat e/ mi lita riz ed- A me ric a?? mi lita riz ed- A me ric a Locatio Hut igd o, Hut igd o Cou ty Nort hum berla d Cou ty Distace to Water Juia ta River -.08 ad Stad ig Stoe Cree k -.0 exact locati o uk ow Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes???? Was abadoed before beig fiished. Refereces Weiser 896:9,82-83,86???? Buckalew 896:

239 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt W yo mi g Bo o e's Mi lls M cl ur e's Fo rt Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By R Sq? Am os Ogd e R Fort ified Mill R Stoc kad ed Far mho use Cap tai Ha wki s Boo e Cap tai Ha wki s Boo e? Lie ute at Mo ses Va Ca mpe a Natioality Square Footage Built A? Abadoed 3? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio 3 Pri vat e A???? Pri vat e A? 8 0?? Pri vat e/ mil itar ize d- A me ric a Locatio Wilk es- Barr e, Luze re Cou ty Nort hum berla d Cou ty Distace to Water Susq ueha a River -.0 exact locati o uk ow? exact locati o uk ow Distace to Roads ot ear mili tary road exa ct loca tio uk ow exa ct loca tio uk ow Distace to Kow Paths to Pat hw ay exa ct loc atio uk o w exa ct loc atio uk o w Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od Last See 6 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces?? Reyolds 896:4??? o Buckalew 896:38??? o Buckalew 896:33 22

240 Type Seve- America Group Fort Name Fo rt Fa ye tte Le gi o vil le Coflict F C F C Pla ad Layout Kow Stoc kad ed Star Fort Oth er Commissioed By Pre side t Geo rge Wa shi gto Pre side t Geo rge Wa shi gto Built By Ge eral At ho y Wa ye Ge eral At ho y Wa ye Natioality Square Footage Built A? 9 2 A? 9 2 Abadoed af te r Years Abadoed 8 0 0? 2 6 Purpose for Costructio mi lita riz ed- A me ric a mi lita riz ed- A me ric a Locatio Pitts burg h, Alle ghe y Cou ty Bade, Beav er Cou ty Distace to Water Alleg hey River -.4 Ohio River -.06 Distace to Roads.2 to For bes,.42 to Bra ddo ck ot ear mili tary road Distace to Kow Paths.0 8 to Pat hw ay to Pat hw ay Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes??? Sometime s called Fort Lafayette. Later used i Whisky Isurrectio 9 3 y e s No Sometime s spelled Legio Ville Refereces Albert 96:9; Davis 92:6-84; Durat 86:8; Gaff 2004:8, 6; Rich 94 Gaff 2004:69-02; Riley ad Johso 2004:

241 Appedix C - No-Pesylvaia Typology Key for Appedix 2: B- British FI Frech ad Idia War S- Star Fort SqSt- Square Stockade Fort F- Frech P- Potiac s War IS- Irregular Star Fort C- Coloial R- Revolutioary War St- Stockade Pr- Private Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Ca ve d is h Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S? Built By 42d Roy al High lad Regi met Natioality Square Footage Built B? 0 s Abadoed Years Abadoed 2 9 Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio Prairi e du Roch er, Rad olph Cou ty, IL Distace to Water Miss issip pi Rive r -.03 Re-Use Costructio Materials lim est oe Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired 8 20s y? e s Notes Previously Fort de Figureres III. Surredered to British i 6. Refereces Babits ad Gadulla 203: ; Fort de Figureres State Historic Park d; Jelks et. al. 989:-9 229

242 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt B ut e Fo rt N e w Ri ch m o d Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built FI S?? B? 6 FI St Lie ute a t Col oe l Ale xa der Dic kso 4? B? 6 3 Abadoed / 2 / 9 9 Years Abadoed 0 Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio ear Prairi eville, Asce sio Paris h, LA Bato Roug e, East Bato Roug e Paris h, LA Distace to Water Ami te Rive r-.0, Ma chac Rive r -.0 Miss issip pi Rive r-.33 Re-Use Rev oluti oar y War Rev oluit oar y War Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? yes Recostructed 68 i 68 after Native America's bured fort. Rebuilt by British durig 8 before it was captured by Spaish forces.???? Captured by Spai i 9 ad reamed Fort Sa Carlos. Was also referred to as Bato Rouge Redoubt ad Post at Bato Rouge. Refereces Haigs 2006:8 Gayarré 86:28; Haigs 2006:62 230

243 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt C u m be rla d Fo rt Fr ed eri ck Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S Ki g Geo rge III ad Go ver or Di wid die FI S Go ver or Hor atio Sha rpe Built By Colo el Ie s ad Chri stop her Gist Natioality B/ C? B, Square Footage 6 4, Built 4-6 Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? milit arize d- Briti sh?? milit arize d- Colo ial Locatio Cum berla d, Alleg ay Cou ty, MD Big Pool/ ear Hage rstow, Wash igto Cou ty, MD Distace to Water Will s Cree k -.04 Poto mac Rive r -. Re-Use P, W, Civi l War Costructio Materials wo od sto e Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? yes Started as tradig post which was the take over by British ad rebuilt.? y es yes Was give to state of Marylad i 20th cetury ad has bee recostructed Refereces Haigs 2006:92; Lowdermil k 88:88-9; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:68 Haigs 2006:93; Marylad Departmet of Natural Resources

244 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt M ic hil im ac ki a c Fo rt at N u m be r Fo ur Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage FI IS?? B 0 FI IS Peo ple of Cha rles to Colo el Joh Stod dard B/ C, , 4 Built Abadoed 8 Years Abadoed o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh?? milit arize d- Colo ial/ Briti sh Locatio Mack iac City, MI Charl estow, Sulli va Cou ty, NH Distace to Water Lake Mic higa -.0 Co ecti cut Rive r -.08 Re-Use Pot iac's War Costructio Materials ced ar wo od Last See 8 Excavated y e s Vauba Ispired yes Notes Destroyed by British i 8. Presetly there is a recostructio of this fort.??? Site was used durig Revolutioary War but the fort was goe before this time. Refereces Babits ad Gadulla 203:26-228; Walthall 99: Potter 86:29, 332; Sauderso 86:3-80; The Fort at No

245 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt W e tw ort h Fo rt A m he rst Coflict Pla ad Layout FI u k o w Commissioed By Go ver or Be i g We tw orth Built By Capt ai Rob ert Rog ers Natioality Square Footage Built B? FI S?? B? Abadoed Years Abadoed o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio ear Grov eto, Coos Cou ty, NH orth of Gles Falls, Warr e Cou ty, NY Distace to Water exac t locat io ot ko w exac t locat io ot ko w Re-Use Rev oluti oar y War Rev oluti oar y War Costructio Materials wo od wo od Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes??? Exact locatio has ot bee determied. 80? o Origially called Fort Miller this fort was recostructed i by Patriot forces before beig destroyed by the British by fire i 80. Refereces Haigs 2006:26; Potter 86:29, 33 Haigs 2006:304; NY SMMVRC 204; North America Forts

246 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt A e Fo rt Br e w ert o Coflict Pla ad Layout FI u k o w Commissioed By FI IS? Built By Natioality Square Footage Built?? B? Ge eral Aber crom bie B 2 30, Abadoed 8 0 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Briti sh?? milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio Fort A, Wash igto Cou ty, NY Brew erto, Oo daga Cou ty, NY Distace to Water Half way Cree k-.02 Oei da Rive r -.08 Re-Use Rev oluti oar y War Rev oluti oar y War Costructio Materials wo od eart h Last See 80 Excavated y e s Vauba Ispired Notes? Origially Fort Schuyler. Recostructed ad reamed Fort Ae (A) i. Captured by the British i 80.?? yes This fort was reportedly still stadig durig the Revolutioary War. It was completely goe by 89. Refereces Haigs 2006:304; North America Forts 204; NY SMMVRC 204b Fort Brewerto Historical Society d.a; Fort Brewerto Historical Society d.b; Haigs 2006:30 234

247 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt B ull Fo rt Cr o w Po it Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S Go ver or Shir ley FI S Maj or Ge eral Jeff ery Am hers t Built By Maj or Ge eral Joh so Maj or Jeffr y Amh erst Natioality B 3 6, Square Footage 8 6 4? B 3 62, 4 6 Built M a y 9 Abadoed 6-6 Years Abadoed o e o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio ear Rom e, Oei da Cou ty, NY Crow Poit, Essex Cou ty, NY Distace to Water Woo d Cree k-.0 Lake Cha mpla i - 6 Re-Use Rev oluti oar y War Costructio Materials wo od Last See 3/2 / 6 Excavated y e s Vauba Ispired yes Notes Also called Wood Creek Fort?? y es yes Replaced the Frech Fort Frédéric. Refereces Hagerty 92:2-26; Haigs 2006:30-306; NPS 204; NY SMMVRC 204c Babits ad Gadulla 203:4-8; Haigs 2006:308; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:3-36, 64, 92, 96 23

248 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Ni ag ar a (O ld) Fo rt O t ari o Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S Bri gad ier Joh Prid eau x Built By Brig adier Joh Prid eaux Natioality Square Footage B 4 49, 2 Built J u e 2 6 FI S?? B? Abadoed P r e s e t A u g u st 6 Years Abadoed o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio You gsto w, Niag ara Cou ty, NY Oswe go, Oswe go Cou ty, NY Distace to Water Lake Ota rio-.06, Niag ara Rive r-.0 Lake Ota rio -.0 Re-Use P, R, War of 8 2 P, R, War of 8 2 Costructio Materials Last See gra ite Pre se t Excavated y e s Vauba Ispired yes Notes Cotrolled the by the Uited States Army util 963.?? y es yes The origial Fort Otario was destroyed by the Frech i 9. It was rebuilt three times. Today a replica of the period fort stads. Refereces Haigs 2006:3-38; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:23,, 8, 92, 62; Old Fort Niagara 204 Aderso 2000:0, 3; Oswego, New York 204; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:, 62,

249 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Os w eg o Fo rt St a wi x Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built FI S?? B? 2 FI S Ge eral Sta wi x Lieu tea t Willi ams B 4, / 8 Abadoed 6 8 Years Abadoed o e y e ar Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio Oswe go, Oswe go Cou t, NY Rom e, Oei da Cou ty, NY Distace to Water Osw ego Rive r-.08 Moh awk Rive r-.20 Re-Use Rev oluti oar y War Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces??? Kaufma 6 ad Kaufma 2004:24, -8; NY SMMVRC 204d wo od 8 y e s yes Durig the Revolutioary War it was repaired i by America forces ad reamed Fort Schuyler. Babits ad Gadulla 203:3; Haigs 2006: ; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:82, 93, 6; NPS 204b 23

250 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Ti co d er og a Fo rt W illi a m H e ry Fo rt W oo d Cr ee k Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S Ge eral Jeff ery Am hers t FI S? Built By Ge eral Jeffe ry Amh erst Sir Willi am Joh so Natioality B 6 3, B 8, Square Footage 6 6 Built FI S?? B? 6 Abadoed 6? Years Abadoed o e o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio Tico derog a, Essex Cou ty, NY Lake Geor ge, Warr e Cou ty, NY ear Rom e, Oei da Cou ty, NY Distace to Water Lake Cha mpla i -. Lake Geor ge-.0 Woo d Cree k-.0 Re-Use R Costructio Materials wo od eart h ad wo od wo od Last See Excavated y e s y e s Vauba Ispired yes yes Notes Formerly Fort Carillo. Recostructed i the 90s.?? yes This fort replaced Fort Bull after it was attacked by the Frech uder de Lery i 6. Refereces Fort Ticoderog a 204: Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:83,9 Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:62, 6-8; Starbuck 204 Hagerty 92:2-24; NPS 204; NY SMMVRC 204b 238

251 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt D ob bs Fo rt Lo ud ou Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI St Go ver or Art hur Do bbs FI IS Go ver or Wil lia m He ry Lytt leto Built By Capt ai Hug h Wad dell Willi am Gera ld DeB rahm Natioality Square Footage B 2, 2 0 B 8, 3 Built 6 Abadoed Years Abadoed o e o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Nort h Caro lia Colo ial milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio State sville, Iredel l Cou ty, NC Voo re, Mor oe Cou ty, TN Distace to Water Four th Cree k -.49 Tho mps o Isla d Shoa ls -.0 Re-Use Costructio Materials wo od Last See 6 Excavated y e s Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces? Babits ad Gadulla 203:84-88; Fort Dobbs d.? y yes Fort does ot 94 es follow origial costructio pla. Plas modified by DeBrahm i 6 to iclude a horwork. Babits ad Gadulla 203:69-6; Fort Loudou 204: Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:

252 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt Bl ac k w at er Fo rt Lo ud ou Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI St Go ver or Di wid die FI S Go ver or Di wid die Built By Capt ai Nath aiel Terr y Geor ge Was higt o Natioality Square Footage Built B? B 2, / Abadoed 6 0 s 8? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Briti sh? milit arize d- Virg iia Colo ial Locatio Frak li Cou ty, VA Wic heste r, Frede rick Cou ty, VA Distace to Water exac t locat io ot ko w Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes???? Also called Terry's Fort? sto e? y es yes Might ot have bee completed Refereces Haigs 2006:62; History Marker 204 Babits ad Gadulla 203:02-9; Haigs 2006:69; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:0- ; Kootz 200:29 240

253 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt V au se 2 Fo rt Fr ed eri ck Fo rt C u m be rla d Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI IS Go ver or Di wid die Built By Geor ge Was higt o Natioality B, Square Footage 4 2 4? Built J u l y 6 FI S?? B? 2 FI S Jacq ues- Pier re de la Jo quiè re Gasp ard- Jose ph de Léry B 9 0, 6 8 4? Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Virg iia Colo ial? milit arize d- Briti sh 9 milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio Shaw sville, Mot gome ry Cou ty, VA Place tia, Newf oudl ad Aula c, New Bru swick Distace to Water Spri g Bra ch of Roa oke Rive r -.08 Atla tic Oce a -.0 Bay of Fu dy -.6 Re-Use R, War of 8 2 Costructio Materials eart h Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? y es yes This is the secod Fort Vause, sometimes also called Vause's Fort ad Fort Vass. Refereces Babits ad Gadulla 203:22-36? 8 y? Caada's es Historic Places d.b, Natioal Gallery of Caada 204 eart h ad tim ber 8 3 y e s yes Was previously Fort Beauséjour Bru 203:-26; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:33; Parks Caada 203; Quebec History

254 Type Oe- British Group Fort Name Fo rt G eo rg e Fo rt Sa it - Je a Coflict Pla ad Layout Commissioed By FI S Ed war d Cor wa llis Built By Joh Bre wse Natioality Square Footage Built B? 4 FI S?? B? Abadoed 6 3 P r e s e t Years Abadoed o e o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Briti sh milit arize d- Briti sh Locatio Halif ax, Nova Scoti a Sait - Jea- sur- Riche lieu, Queb ec Distace to Water Atla tic Oce a -. Rivi ère Rich elieu -.0 Re-Use R, War of 8 2 R, War of 8 2, WW I, WW II Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? y yes The Citadel, 63 es formerly Fort George, was i use util World War II.? Pre se t y e s yes Today it is the Royal Military College of Sait-Jea Refereces Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:63-64; Piers 94:- Musée du Fort Sait- Jea Museum d.b; NDCF

255 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio Locatio Distace to Water Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces For t de Fig ure res For t de L'A sce si o FI S Gov ero r Bie vill e Jea Jac qu es M ac art y F? 0 s FI S?? F 6 0? milit arize d- Fre ch?? milit arize d- Fre ch Prair ie du Roch er, Rad olph Cou ty, IL Metr opoli s, Mass ac Cou ty, IL Miss issip pi Rive r -.03 Ohio Rive r-.04 lime stoe 2 yes yes There were three of these by the same ame i differet locatios. This is the third. Babits ad Gadulla 203: ; Fort de Figureres State Historic Park d; Jelks et. al. 989:-9 ; Walthall 99:3-33??? Idiaa Departmet of Natural Resource

256 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Ma ssia c Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage FI S?? F 3 0, Built Abadoed 6 3 Years Abadoed 3 Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio Metr opoli s, Mass ac Cou ty, IL Distace to Water Ohio Rive r-.04 Re-Use R/ Fr ot ier Co fl ict/ W ar of 8 2 Costructio Materials earth ad woo d Last See 8 4 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes yes yes Fort built o site of the old Fort De L'Ascesio costructed i. Name chaged to Fort Massac i 63. I 94 Athoy Waye rebuilt Fort Massac which was used durig the War of 82. Refereces Gaff 2004:2, 2; Idiaa Departmet of Natural Resources 204; Walthall 99:

257 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Det our a l'a gl ais For t la Poi te Co upe e Coflict FI u k o w FI u k o w Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By? De Ve rge s Bie vill e? Bi e vil le Natioality Square Footage Built F 4 8 F? Abadoed 9 2 Years Abadoed 6 Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Fre ch?? milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio ear New Orle as, Orle as Paris h, LA ear Fra cisvi lle, West Felic iaa Paris h, LA Distace to Water exac t locat io ot ko w exac t locat io ot ko w Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See R? 92 R? aft er 8 0 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes?? Spaish assumed cotrol i 60s ad ame chaged to Fort St. Leo. Later rebuilt i 808 by America forces ad called Fort St. Leo. Destroyed i Civil War.?? Later used durig Revolutioary War as a Spaish Post. Poste de Poite Coupee. Refereces Haigs 2006:60 Haigs 2006:6 24

258 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t St. Ch arle s (Sa Car los) For t St. Jea Ba ptis te des Nat chit och es Coflict FI u k o w FI S Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built?? F? 0 s Sieu r Cha rles Cla due Dus tie Sie ur Ch arl es Cl au de Du sti e F? 6 Abadoed Years Abadoed 4 4 Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Fre ch milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio New Orle as, Orle as Paris h, LA Natc hitoc hes, Natc hitoc hes Paris h, LA Distace to Water exac t locat io ot ko w exac t locat io ot ko w Re-Use Ci vil W ar Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes???? Give to Spai i 6. Later take over by Americas i 803 ad was used as a fort util 82.? 8 03 o? Captured by Eglad i 63. Rebuilt i 8 by Eglish uder ame Fort Pamures. Uder America cotrol i 98 it was called Fort St. Joh. Refereces Haigs 2006:62-63 Haigs 2006:63; Louisiaa State Parks Historic Site 204; Natchitoches. et

259 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Det roit For t Mi chil ima cki ac Coflict FI I S FI I S Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Jero me Phel ype aux Built By Ca pt. A to ie De La M oth e Ca dil lac? Co st at le M arc ha d de Li g ery Natioality Square Footage F 9, 2, 4 2 F 0, 3 2 Built 0 o r Abadoed 8 6 Years Abadoed o e o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Fre ch milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio Detr oit, Way e Cou ty, MI Mac kia w City, Cheb oyga or Em met Cou ty, MI Distace to Water Detr oit Rive r -.33 Lake Mic higa -.0 Re-Use P, R Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes??? yes This fort was the Detroit Stroghold. It was later replaced by Fort Leroult which was placed i a differet locatio. ceda r 6 yes Ye s Captured by British i 6. Recostructio of part of fort i 30 after a fire Refereces Coway ad Jamroz 200:0- Babits ad Gadulla 203:26-228; Bailey 904:82, 88-89, 93, 0; Mackiac Parks 204; Walthall 99:36,

260 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Car illo For t Fré déri c Coflict FI S FI S t Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Gov ero r Vau dreu il Gov ero r Ge eral Mar quis de Bea uch aro is Built By Mi ch el Fi gu rei er de Lo tbi iè re Ga sp ard Jos ep h Ch au sse gr os de Le ry Natioality Square Footage Built F? O c t 0 F 3, Abadoed 9 9 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio 0 milti arize d- Fre ch o e milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio Tico der oga, Esse x Cou ty, NY Cro w Poit, Esse x Cou ty, NY Distace to Water Lake Cha mpla i -. Lake Cha mpla i-.03 Re-Use Costructio Materials woo d Last See Jul y 9 stoe 9 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes yes yes Later occupied by British ad amed Fort Ticoderoga. yes yes Replaced by Fort Crow Poit. Sometimes referred to as Fort St. Frédéric. Refereces Haigs 2006:306; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004: 6-, 83, 9 Babits ad Gadulla 203:4-8; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:3-36, 64,

261 Fre ch Cas tle For t la Rei e FI S FI u k o w Lou is- Tho mas Cha bert de Joc aire Ga sp ard - Jos ep h Ch au sse gr os de Lé ry? Pie rre Ga ult ier de Va re ess, Sie r de La Vé re dr ye F? F? ? o e milit arize d- Fre ch milit arize d- Fre ch You gst ow, Niag ara Cou ty, NY Porta ge la Prair ie, Mai toba Lake Ota rio-.06, Niag ara Rive r-.0 Assi iboi e Rive r -. grai te Pre se t yes yes Seized by the British i 9.???? Bured by Assiiboie Natives after the witer of 2. Haigs 2006:3-38, Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:22-23, ; Old Fort Niagara 204 Caada's Historic Places d.a; Compaigie de la Veredrye 203; Iteret Archives

262 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Ma ure pas For t Bea usé jou r Coflict FI u k o w FI S Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Pier re La Ver edr ye Jacq ues- Pierr e de la Joq uière Built By Pie rre Ga ult ier de Va re ess, Sie r de La Vé re dr ye Ga spa rd- Jos ep h de Lér y Natioality Square Footage Built F? 0 F 9 0, Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio?? milit arize d- Fre ch o e milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio Fort Alex ade r, Mai toba Aula c, New Bru swic k Distace to Water Wi epe g Rive r -.08 Bay of Fud y -.6 Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces???? The Maitoba Historical Society (MHS) 204 earth ad timb er yes yes Later became Fort Cumberlad i. Bru 203:6-9; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:33; Parks Caada 203; Quebec History

263 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Gas par eau x For t Fro te ac (the Fou rth) For t Ro uill é Coflict FI S Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Mar quis de Jo quiè re Built By FI S? Ch au sse gr os de Lé ry FI st a r f o rt Mar quis de la Jo quiè re Natioality Square Footage Built? F?? Fre c h F? 2 6? 0 - Abadoed 8 9 Years Abadoed o e o e o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Fre ch milit arize d- Fre ch milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio Poit Elge, New Bru swic k Kig sto, Ota rio Toro to, Ota rio Distace to Water Nort hum berla d Strai t -.0 Kig sto Bay -.0 Lake Ota rio -.0 Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See? 6 stoe 8? 9 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes yes yes Take over by British who occupied it util 6 uder the ame Fort Mockto. yes yes Was oted as deterioratig i. This is the fourth fort of this ame i this geeral area.?? Also kow as Fort Toroto Refereces Caada's Historic Places d.c; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:32, 34, 6 Adams 986:4; Babits ad Gadulla 203:9-23; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:, 22, Kaufmaa ad Kaufma 2004:24, 8; Toroto's Historical Plaques 204 2

264 Type Two- Frech Group Fort Name For t Sai t- Jea Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built FI S?? F? 4 8 Type Three- Coloial Group Abadoed 6 0 Years Abadoed o e Purpose for Costructio milit arize d- Fre ch Locatio Sait - Jea- sur- Rich elieu, Que bec Distace to Water Rivi ère Rich elieu -.0 Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See? 60 Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes yes yes This is the secod fort of the same ame i the same locatio. Refereces Musée du Fort Sait-Jea Museum d.a; NDCF 2008 Fort Name Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio Locatio Distace to Water i Miles Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces For t Pri ce Ge org e FI st a r f o rt Gov ero r Jam es Gle Go ver o r Ja me s Gl e C? milit arize d- Sout h Caro lia Colo ial Pick es Cou ty, SC i the Keo wee Rive r woo d 68 yes yes By the Revolutioary War a tradig post was located here. After the Rev War it was plowed over util the 960s. Babits ad Gadulla 203:2-6; Williams 998:3-6 22

265 Type Three- Coloial Group Fort Name For t As hby For t But ter mil k Coflict FI S FI S t Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Gov ero r Di wid die ad Geo rge Was hig to Built By Ca pta i Jo h As hb y? Ca pta i Th om as W ag go er Natioality Square Footage C 8, 0 0 Built C? 6 Abadoed 6? Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? milit arize d- Colo ial?? milit arize d- Colo ial Locatio Fort Ashb y, Mie ral Cou ty, WV Moo refiel d, Hard y Cou ty, WV Distace to Water i Miles Prair ie Ru -.08 Sout h Bra ch of Poto mac Rive r -.0 Re-Use Costructio Materials woo d woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? yes yes Aother fort later occupied this site which has sice bee recostructed. Sometimes called Ashby's Fort.?? yes Fort Waggoer ad Wagoer's Lower Fort Refereces Cook 204; Haigs 2006: ; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004: 69; Kootz 200:-2; McBride 2003:33 Cook 204; Haigs 2006:603; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:69; Kootz 200:3; McBride ad McBride

266 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Coflict Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Built By Natioality Square Footage Built Abadoed Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio Locatio Distace to Water Re-Use Costructio Materials Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes Refereces For t Ple asa t For t Va use For t Sey bert FI I S FI I S FI S t Geo rge Was hig to Eph raim Vau se Jaco b Sey bert Ca pta i Th om as W ag go er Ep hra im Va us e Jac ob Se yb ert Pr? 6 Pr? Pr??? milit arize d- Colo ial Priv ate Settl er Virg iia o e Priv ate Settl er Old Field s, Hard y Cou ty, WV Sha wsvi lle, Mo tgom ery Cou ty, VA ear Fra kli, Ped leto Cou ty, WV Ad erso Ru -.0 Spri g Bra ch of Roa oke Rive r -.08 exac t locat io ot ko w Re vol uti o ary W ar woo d? 6 woo d? yes yes Adamso 202; Cook 204; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:0; Sider 92 8 yes yes This site was abadoed i 6 by ower durig a Native Ameirca raid. This is the origial Fort Vause. Babits ad Gadulla 203:22-36?? Cook 204; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:0; Talbot

267 Type Four- Private Group Fort Name Ed war d's For t Coflict FI S t Pla ad Layout Kow Commissioed By Jose ph Edw ards Built By Jos ep h Ed wa rds Natioality Pr/ C Square Footage Built? Abadoed 6 Years Abadoed Purpose for Costructio? Priv ate Settl er Viri gia / Virg iia Colo ial Locatio Ham pshir e Cou ty, WV Distace to Water Caca po Rive r -.6 Re-Use Costructio Materials woo d Last See Excavated Vauba Ispired Notes? yes o Origially built as a private fort which was take over by the Virgiia militia. Sometimes called Fort Edward. Refereces Babits ad Gadulla 203:39-6; Cook 204; Ford Edward Foudatio 204; Kaufma ad Kaufma 2004:0; Kootz 200:20; McBride 2003:33 2

268 Appedix D - Complete List of Pesylvaia Forts used i Aalysis Frech ad Idia War Forts. Fort Alle 2. Fort Augusta 3. Fort Bedford 4. Fort Burd. Fort Chambers 6. Fort de la Presque Isle. Fort Presque Isle 8. Fort Deshler 9. Fort Duquese 0. Fort Everett. Fort Frakli 2. Fort Frakli 3. Fort George 4. Fort Graville. Fort Halifax 6. Fort Hamilto. Fort Harris 8. Fort Hery 9. Fort Huter 20. Fort Hydshaw 2. Fort Juiata Crossig 22. Fort De La Rivière Au Boeuf 23. Fort le Boeuf 24. Fort Lebao 2. Fort Lehigh 26. Fort Letort 2. Fort Ligoier 28. Fort Littleto/ Fort Lyttelto 29. Fort Loudou 30. Fort Machault 3. Fort Mada 32. Fort Morris 33. Fort Necessity 34. Fort Norris 3. Fort Northkill 36. Fort Patterso 3. Fort Pe 38. Fort Pitt 39. Fort Robiso 40. Fort Shirley 4. Fort Steel 42. Fort Veago 43. Fort Veago 44. Adam Dietz s 4. Carlisle Fort 46. McDowell s Mill 4. McKee s Store 48. Mercer s Fort 49. Nazareth Stockade 0. Nicklasz Obliger s. Samuel Deupui s 2. Tret s Fort 3. Trucker s Mill Potiac s War Forts. Fort Alle 2. Fort Augusta 3. Fort Ligoier 4. Fort Pitt. Flourbag Fort 26

269 Yakee-Peamite War Forts. Fort Durkee 2. Fort Wallepaupack 3. Fort Wyomig 4. Jeki s Fort. Forty Fort Revolutioary War Forts. Fort Ates 2. Fort Armstrog 3. Fort Augusta 4. Fort Bosely. Fort Brady 6. Fort Crawford. Fort Frakli 8. Fort Freelad 9. Fort Hartsog 0. Fort Jekis. Fort le Boeuf 2. Fort McItosh 3. Fort Miffli 4. Fort Meiger. Fort Mucy 6. Fort Piper. Fort Preservatio 8. Fort Reed 9. Fort Reid 20. Fort Rice 2. Fort Riffle 22. Fort Roberdeau 23. Fort Roller 6. Pittsto Fort. Shawee Fort 8. Wilkes-Barre Fort 9. Witermoot s Fort 24. Fort Stadig Stoe 2. Fort Swartz 26. Fort Wheeler 2. Fort Wyomig 28. Alle s Fort 29. Booe s Mills 30. Cherry s Fort 3. Craft s Fort 32. Cox s Fort 33. Dillow s Fort 34. Hoaglad s Fort 3. Jackso s Fort 36. Lidley s Fort 3. Maso s Fort 38. McLure s Fort 39. Morris Fort 40. Old Garriso 4. Palmer s Fort 42. Swearige s Fort 43. Wallace s Fort 44. Well s Fort 2

270 Frotier Coflict Forts. Fort Fayette 2. Legioville 28

271 Appedix E - Complete List of Pesylvaia Forts ot used i Aalysis. Alliso s Fort 2. Ashcraft s Fort 3. Barett s Fort 4. Becket s Fort. Beelor s Fort 6. Bethel Moravia Meetighouse. Burgett s Fort 8. Bethlehem 9. Bigham s Fort 0. Brodhead s Fort. Brow s Fort 2. Cassell s (Castle) Fort 3. Christiasbru 4. Coomb s Fort. Cross s Fort 6. Culbertso s Fort. David Davis s Fort 8. Deshler s Fort 9. Dismore s Fort 20. Doddridge Fort 2. Flourbag Fort 22. Forma s Fort 23. Fort Chambers 24. Fort Crogha 2. Fort Davis 26. Fort Dickey 2. Fort Deshler 28. Fort Everett 29. Fort Ferguso 30. Fort Frakli 3. Fort George 32. Fort Gree 33. Fort Harris 34. Fort Hery 3. Fort Lehigh 36. Fort Letort 3. Fort Lytle 38. Fort Maada 39. Fort Marshall 40. Fort McAlister 4. Fort McFarlad 42. Fort Milkie 43. Fort Patterso 44. Fort Pleasat 4. Fort Price George 46. Fort Reed 4. Fort Robiso 48. Fort Shippe 49. Fort South of Lehigh Gap 0. Fort Steel. Fort Swa ad Va Meter 2. Fort Waddell 3. Friedesthal 4. Gaddis Fort. Garad s Fort 6. Gaspard Markle s House ad Statio. Gadethal 8. Harriso s Fort 9. Harro s Fort 60. Hedricks Fort 6. Heidelberg Moravia Meetighouse 62. Hollow betwee Swatara ad the Couty Lie 63. Huter s Mill 64. Killough s Fort 6. Lamb s Fort 66. Licht s Fort or Light s Fort 6. Lucas Fort 68. Marshall s Fort 69. Maxwell s Fort 0. McCormick s Fort. McClure s Fort 2. McFarlad s Fort 3. Miller s Statio 4. McComb s Fort. McCoell s Fort 6. McCoy s Fort. McDoald s Statio 29

272 8. Mill at Friedesthal 9. Miter s Fort 80. Nazareth 8. Nazareth Stockade 82. Old Stoe Fort (Fort Matamoras) 83. Path Valley Fort 84. Patto s Fort 8. Pearse s Fort 86. Philip Kligesmith s House 8. Ralsto Fort 88. Reed s Fort 89. Robiso s House 90. Robiso s Mill 9. Rice s Fort 92. Roey s Fort 93. Ryerso s Fort 94. Samuel Dupui s Fort 9. Sharp s Fort 96. Spark s Fort 9. Statler s Fort 98. Steel s Meetig House 99. Stewart s Fort 00. Tylor s House 0. Vace s Fort 02. Walthour s Fort 03. Wolf s Fort 04. Waddell s 260

273 Appedix F - Complete List of No-Pesylvaia Forts used i Aalysis Frech ad Idia War Forts. Fort de Figureres- Illiois 2. Fort Cavedish- Illiois 3. Fort de L Ascesio Illiois 4. Fort Massiac- Illiois. Fort Bute- Louisiaa 6. Fort Detour a l Aglais- Louisiaa. Fort la Poite Coupee- Louisiaa 8. Fort New Richmod- Louisiaa 9. Fort St. Charles (Sa Carlos) Louisiaa 0. Fort St. Jea Baptiste des Natchitoches Louisiaa. Fort Cumberlad Marylad 2. Fort Frederick- Marylad 3. Fort Detroit Michiga 4. Fort Michilimackiac Michiga. Fort Michilimackiac Michiga 6. Fort at Number Four New Hampshire. Fort Wetworth New Hampshire 8. Fort Amherst New York 9. Fort Ae (Fort A) New York 20. Fort Brewerto New York 2. Fort Bull New York 22. Fort Carillo New York 23. Fort Crow Poit New York 24. Fort Niagara (Old) New York 2. Fort Otario - New York 26. Fort Oswego New York 2. Fort Frédérick New York 28. Fort Stawix New York 29. Fort Ticoderoga- New York 30. Fort William Hery New York 3. Fort Wood Creek New York 32. Frech Castle New York 33. Fort Dobbs- North Carolia 34. Fort Price George South Carolia 3. Fort Loudou Teessee 36. Fort Blackwater Virgiia 3. Fort Loudou - Virgiia 38. Fort Vause Virgiia 39. Fort Vause 2- Virgiia 40. Fort Ashby- West Virgiia 4. Fort Buttermilk West Virgiia 42. Fort Pleasat West Virgiia 43. Fort Seybert- West Virgiia 44. Edward s Fort West Virgiia 4. Fort la Reie- Maitoba 46. Fort Marepas Maitoba 4. Fort Beauséjour New Bruswick 48. Fort Cumberlad- New Bruswick 49. Fort Frederick New Bruswick 0. Fort Gaspareaux New Bruswick. Fort George Nova Scotia 2. Fort Froteac (the Fourth) Otario 3. Fort Rouillé Otario 4. Fort Sait-Jea - Quebec 26

274 Appedix G - Fort Maps for Pesylvaia Map of the Frech ad Idia War forts cotaied withi Pesylvaia. Forts surrouded by the red circle are those forts that were used durig Potiac s War. Map was geerated i ArcMap by author. 262

275 Close up map of the Yakee-Peamite War forts cotaied withi Pesylvaia. Map was geerated i ArcMap by author. 263

276 Map of the Revolutioary War forts cotaied withi Pesylvaia. Forts highlighted with red circle are those forts which were utilized durig the Frotier Coflict: A8 beig Fort Fayette ad A0 beig Legioville. Map was geerated i ArcMap by author. 264