Greek Sculpture. Early Classical Note the transition to the more lifelike appearance of this kouros compared to the earlier one at the upper right.

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1 Greek Sculpture Hon. Art Humanities Section 5: Ancient Greece Supplement/Reference Greek art in particular was very influential in the development of Western art. Knowledge of the Classical period is almost a prerequisite to the study of the evolution of Western art. The Greeks believed that all men by nature desire to know, as stated by Aristotle; this philosophy was held by Greek sculptors. During the Classical period, Greek sculptors focused their energies on naturalizing effects on the human figure. The later rediscovery of Greek art and its drive for perfection of the human form was a major influence hundreds of years later during the Renaissance. This led the way for resurgence of the classical Greek style in other cultures centuries after the fall of the Greek Empire. Today, over two thousand years later, art historians are continuing to piece together this ancient past with the few remnants we have left. Centuries of war and various rulers of the land have resulted in the neglect and destruction of many of the Greek culture's greatest works. The Roman Empire absorbed Greece, but preserved and copied the sculpture of the Greeks, incorporating it into their own culture. Thus much of our modern knowledge of Greek sculpture has been gained from these Roman copies. One notable difference between Greek originals and Roman copies is that the Greek originals are always freestanding (no special supports are needed to make them stand other than the statue's two feet), whereas Roman copies usually rely on a post to hold them up. For this, and many other reasons, most art historians rank the Classical period of ancient Greece right along with the Renaissance as the greatest periods of all art, each producing more art and more evolution than has ever been seen at any other time. The Archaic Period Beginning in the 6th century BCE, one hundred and fifty years before Classical Greek sculpture was developed, sculptors had almost perfected the rendering of the male nude in white marble. However, this perfection was largely superficial; the figures were no more than the sum of their parts, accurately sculpted, and accurately put together. As the sculptures began to look more like real men, artists began to become dissatisfied with the products of the rigid Archaic period. The typical pose, representing neither action nor stillness, made the figure look awkward, and the calculated symmetry made it Early Classical Note the transition to the more lifelike appearance of this kouros compared to the earlier one at the upper right. seem unnatural. When Greek vase painters and bronze casters began their studies of the human body in motion, the marble sculptors could only follow with studies of their own. The Greeks studied the movement of the body, how Kouros (nude male youth), typical of the Archaic Period. Notice the stiffness and symmetry that make it look somewhat Egyptian, compared to the later work of the Classical Period. 1

2 weight is carried, and how a shift in stance could affect the placement of limbs, torso, and head. The Classical ideal The essential characteristic of classical Greek art is a heroic realism. Painters and sculptors attempted to reveal the human body, in movement or repose, exactly as it appears to the eye. The emphasis was on people of unusual beauty, or moments of high and noble achievement. The scale and ambition of classical Greek sculpture can be seen in a fragment of an early masterpiece. The famous Charioteer of Delphi (above right), a life- size bronze, which is the only surviving figure of a major group consisting of the chariot and its horses, a passenger, and an attendant slave boy. The charioteer (above and at left) is shown in his chariot during the victory parade. The slight twist of the body, from bare feet to head, suggests an entirely natural stance - just as the arm seems to imply a light pressure on the reins. In an equally subtle way the face shows the quiet exultation of a man who has just won great honor in a solemn competition. Athletic contests in Greece had an almost religious status. The Charioteer of Delphi is a masterpiece of Classical art. It belongs to the "severe" style, and it depicts the winner of the chariot race at the Pythian games. Bronze, 470 BCE. (5'11"). Hellenistic Seated Boxer During the Hellenistic period art underwent dramatic transformations and evolved on the road paved previously by the Classical artist. While the Classical Greek concepts were not entirely abandoned, the artist of the Hellenistic era expanded his formal horizons with dramatic posing, sweeping lines, and high contrast of light, shadow and emotions. The conventions and rules of the classical period gave way to the experimentation and a sense of freedom that allowed the Nike of Samothrace, or Winged Victory 2

3 artist to explore his subjects from different unique points of view. Naturalism evolved towards a more realistic way of expressing the human figure. The subtle implications of greatness and humility of the high Classical era (see the Charioteer of Delphi, p. 2) are replaced with bold expressions of energy and power during the moments of tension as evident in Winged Victory (previous page) the Boy Jockey (left). The Boy Jockey (Bronze, circa 220 BC. life- size) was recovered from a shipwreck and for years was exhibited without his horse which had to undergo extensive restoration. A boy jockey of the later Hellenistic period suggests how well the new naturalism of the Greek sculptors coped with movement. This bronze representation of human vitality, in the excitement of the race, is an admired image from the ancient world. The nude in Greek sculpture In athletics, as opposed to chariot racing, the competitors are naked. The male body was an acknowledged object of beauty in ancient Greece; and the male nude is perhaps the greatest achievement of Greek sculpture. The earliest surviving masterpiece of this kind dates from about 480 BC. It shows a young man in a completely natural stance (see page 1, left, and here, to the right). His weight is on one leg and hip, with the other knee flexed. The effect on the muscles under the skin, through knees and buttocks up to the gentle curve of the back, is suggested in the marble. The most famous Greek sculpture of an athlete in action is the Discus Thrower (Discobolus) by Myron, in which the coiled body of the naked athlete seems forever about to spin the disc away into the distance (left). Kritios Boy, 480 BCE Marble, 1.17 m tall (3'10") The sculpture is known only in Roman copies. Carved in marble, they need ungainly supports - such as the awkward tree trunk against which the athlete seems to lean. The lost original, cast in bronze, needs no such encumbrances. Like the Charioteer of Delphi, this image is a testament to the skills of the Greek bronze- casters. 3

4 Sculpture as a public statement The mid- 5th century represents a peak of Greek sculpture, in quantity as well as quality. At exactly the period when Myron is creating the Discus Thrower, the Athenians are building the Parthenon. The sculptures and reliefs that decorate the temple were completed within about ten years, from 447 BC. The inner frieze, showing a great Athenian procession, stretches for more than 150 meters. The Parthenon (Elgin) Marbles A large collection of marbles from the Parthenon, originally known as the Elgin Marbles, but now usually referred to as the Parthenon Marbles were transferred to Britain in 1806 by Thomas Bruce, Lord of Elgin, ambassador to the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire from 1799 until Greece was under Turkish rule at this time. Taking advantage of the Ottoman rule in Greece, Lord Elgin acquired permission from the Turkish Sultan to remove many important sculptures which he took back to England. He is said to have filled one hundred large packing cases with the Parthenon remains. Some broke as they were lowered to the ground. The operation required 300 workers employed for over a year. This collection of sculptures includes some of the sculptures of the Parthenon frieze, with battles between the Lapithians and Centaurs. Lord Elgin took approximately half of the sculptures of Parthenon, as well as many from other buildings on the Acropolis. It took four years for the marbles to make their way back to Britain, which had recently renewed its war with France. Elgin, who had decided to make his way back by travelling overland through France, was captured and imprisoned after the fighting flared up. He was held until While a captive, fame of his Parthenon exploits grew and he began to be disparaged as a thief of ancient civilization. His most famous critic was the famed English writer, Lord Byron. 4

5 Not everyone criticized Elgin. Antonio Canova, an influential Italian sculptor, wrote, "I am persuaded that all artists and amateurs must gratefully acknowledge their high obligation to Your Lordship for having brought these memorable and stupendous sculptures into our neighborhood." In a letter to Elgin, Benjamin Robert Hayden, an English Romantic painter, also expressed praise: "You have immortalized yourself, my lord, by bringing them." John Keats, a well- known Romantic poet, wrote a sonnet of praise entitled On Seeing the Elgin Marbles, but professed that he felt like, a sick eagle looking at the sky. Even today, opinions of Elgin range widely. Matt Berrett, a publisher of Greek travel guides, calls the Lord Elgin a "tragic figure" who has been "demonized and turned into a monster by Byron, and then generation after generation and by the Greeks themselves." The late Greek actress and politician Melina Mercury, former minister of Culture, tried to get the Elgin marbles back to Greece. The effort was supported by the Greek government, the Greek people, and numerous organizations and personalities of the arts and sciences worldwide. A notice issued by the British Museum in April 2007, stated that it did not intend to transfer any ownership of the Parthenon sculptures to Greece or any Greek museum. The sculptures have remained housed in the British Museum in London since

6 Color in Greek Sculpture 6