The development of the Greek polis was influenced heavily by many factors such as

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1 Katie Stringer February 15, 2011 HIST 7920: Selected Studies in European History Greeks and the other in development of Greek identity The development of the Greek polis was influenced heavily by many factors such as geography and city development, but the concept of the other, or outsider, was also pivotal in the creation of a Greek identity throughout the various poleis. Primary sources, such as historical works by Herodotus and Thucydides as well as art from the Mediterranean, offer information both directly and indirectly. Scholars may find evidence about Greek culture as a whole, specific customs within particular poleis, and details of cultures outside of mainstream Greek beliefs within the contemporary sources. Prior to the development of the polis, Greeks did not have a large enough population to serve cities or large communities of people. As the populations grew due to agricultural improvements, small villages in close proximity to one another merged to create larger communities. Each population had a gathering space or a fortified area which became the center of the community and also a space for protection. 1 By the end of the eighth century, cities began to express their identity as a separate group and defend their city with a citizen army. The cities themselves were not able to sustain large building projects until into the sixth century, but the idea of the polis as a community of people may have existed before resources for monumental building were available. 2 The distinction between a city-state and a polis is somewhat complicated, but simply put, scholarly investigation today uses the general term city-state when referring to the independent Greek settlements. Hellenes called the districts poleis, and the term includes more than just a 1 Charles Freeman, Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), Freeman, 95.

2 Stringer 2 political or geographic area, but also the community of people and their values and culture. 3 The complexity of Greece as a whole results in inevitable generalizations about the poleis. There is no set of rules for government or cultural aspects in the polis, and therefore, each one may have had some variety. 4 However, in broad terms, the poleis were self-governing entities in the larger area of Greece. The polis was defined largely by geography because the mountainous landscape and geographical features of Greece made travel across land difficult. The community was generally made up of all people in the area, but only the male citizens could participate in the politics and governing of the polis. 5 The polis, sometimes called a city-state, was not only a political designation but also the center of identity for the people who belonged to or claimed allegiance to that certain community. According to an article published by a group of scholars from the Copenhagen Polis Centre, the term polis could be used to describe either the settlement or the community of people. 6 The settlement was made up of the actual houses, buildings, and fortifications of the city, as well as the urban center and territory held by the polis. The community consisted of the humans who were a part of the polis, particularly the politai, or citizens. 7 A polis was made up of politai, or adult male citizens. Structurally women and men as well as children were considered to be a part of the group politai, but only adult males could be involved politically. Slaves and foreigners were excluded almost completely from the military 3 Morgan Herman Hansen, 95 Theses about the Greek 'Polis' in the Archaic and Classical Periods, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 52, no. 3 (2003): Hansen, Ibid. 6 Ibid., Ibid.

3 Stringer 3 and political lives within the polis. This separation within the polis itself is an example of the concept of who is a Greek and who is part of the other. 8 This concept will be further explored below. The community offered its citizens and inhabitants a strong sense of identity within the polis through common tradition, ceremonies and religious ties, symbolism, and ancestry. Additionally, the name of the polis to which one belonged was sometimes used as a surname or ethnic identifier. 9 Generally, each polis had a god or goddess that was chosen as the protector, such as Athena in Athens or Apollo in Corinth. A temple was built to that god or goddess in the main civic area of the city which became another of the defining characteristics for the polis. 10 The Olympic Games were one way of a polis expressing their identity through competition with the other poleis of Greece, but a common Greek culture is also evident through the games. As the poleis grew and the inhabitants fostered an intense loyalty to their particular polis, a distinct Greek or Hellenic identity began to form as well. Greeks became more comfortable with the sea and travel, and as they expanded throughout the Mediterranean through colonization a distinct Greek culture began to develop. Competition through the Olympic Games is one example of a cohesive Greek culture where the various poleis came together to compete with one another in sporting events dedicated to the god Zeus. 11 The first recorded Olympic Games are believed to have taken place in 776 BCE, which may be considered to be an important date related to the creation of a Greek culture Ibid., Ibid., Freeman, Freeman, Freeman, 590.

4 Stringer 4 While Greek culture developed throughout the poleis, a definite other began to appear as well, and Greeks began to feel the need to distinguish themselves from people outside of their culture. The other could be anyone outside of Greek society, sometimes even including women and children. Many times slaves, people from other settlements to the north of Greece, and other cultures from around the Mediterranean were considered to be outsiders. Evidence for distinctions between Greeks and outsiders is found in Herodotus The Histories, Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War, and in artistic representations of Greeks and the other. Because of the difficult terrain of Greece, limited agricultural resources, and the islands scattered throughout the Aegean and Mediterranean, Greeks became adept at sailing and trading with other peoples. Along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea Greek colonies began to appear, and with the colonies came colonists who encountered the native people. 13 Cultural exchange was inevitable, and colonization may have been one factor in the Hellenization of the Greek people. Perhaps when the sailors and colonists encountered groups with a strong heritage or cultural background, such as the Egyptians, they felt the need to develop their own culture and develop origin myths. However, some scholars feel that another event was the deciding factor in the creation of a distinct Greek culture. Jonathan M. Hall is a classics professor at Cambridge and the author of a presumably interesting book that sheds more light on the creation of a cohesive Hellenic culture called Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture. Unfortunately time constraints prevented the acquisition of the book in time for a complete analysis, but a book review about the work was 13 Freeman, 97.

5 Stringer 5 able to provide some information on Hall s theories about Hellenic culture development. 14 According to Kathryn Lomas, Hall believes that Greek identity developed after the Persian Wars, later than many earlier scholars believed. Hall claims that the common culture developed in response to the stereotype of a Non-Greek or outsider; in order to have an outsider, one must have a reference to what constitutes an insider. 15 The information found in Herodotus and Thucydides supports this theory with primary evidence. Herodotus was an author from the fifth century BCE who is arguably the father of history, anthropology, geography, and travel guides. He was born in Halicarnassus, a Greek city on the coast of Asia Minor, in around 480 BCE. Technically, the area in which he was born was a part of the Persian Empire, but Herodotus was considered a Greek because of his cultural upbringing and language. This in itself is an example of the Hellenism of the Mediterranean; though not a citizen of a mainland Greek polis he still considered himself to be a Greek, or Hellene. It is believed that he traveled to various places around the Mediterranean and later wrote coherently from his travel notes to produce what is known today as The Histories. The title and the modern word history come from the word historia, meaning inquiry. 16 Rather than writing an epic story like previous writers such as Homer, Herodotus claims in the beginning of his book that he writes to understand the causes behind a specific event Kathryn Lomas, review of Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture, by Jonathan M. Hall, Bryn Mawr Classical Review (April 2004), (accessed February 15, 2011). 15 Ibid. 16 Freeman, Ibid.

6 Stringer 6 As Herodotus describes the reasons behind the Persian war as well as events in the wars, he also discusses the various cultures that were involved in the battles. Even in the first section of his book he claims that he will, pay attention to both alike regarding the Greeks and the others, or Persians. 18 However, throughout the work he acclaims the victory of Greeks against Persians and the role that their pride played in that success. According to Freeman, the Greeks, with their simple life, co-operative political arrangements, and belief in liberty are, in Herodotus eyes, superior, and that explains their success. 19 This assumes that the Greeks had a culture that was seen as apart from the other, in this case the Persians. Rather than criticizing the Persians throughout the Histories, Herodotus instead presents them as people despite their being barbarians. As he traveled throughout the Mediterranean, he generally showed the same deference to other outside cultures. Though he does give some level of respect to outsiders, he does at the same time show the differences between the cultures, and the dissimilarities make the distinct Greek civilization clear. While he does mention the poleis as small, individual culture groups, a general Greek culture is evident through the peoples language, customs, and religious beliefs. 20 With the invasion of the Persians into Greece, the poleis had to unite to resist the complete incursion of outsiders. Herodotus claims that the Greeks were facing 1,700,000 Persian soldiers and 1,300 triremes from the Persian navy; this is likely an exaggeration that shows the immense challenge that the Greeks faced with the Persians. 21 Animosity between poleis was common, and some saw the Persian invasion as an opportunity to gain power over 18 Herodotus, The Histories (London: Penguin Books, 2003), Freeman, Freeman, Freeman, 157.

7 Stringer 7 other groups; these factors made unification among the Greeks difficult. Sparta took steps toward creating a confederation, and thirty states met in Sparta to plan a unified front against the Persians with Sparta as the leader. Problems did occur with the unification, such as Argos refusing to join with Sparta, but many states did join together against the Persians, possibly sparking a merger of cultures that would become the Hellenic culture. 22 Freeman s use of Greek throughout his explanations of the Persian Wars also suggests a consistent culture. However, not all the city-states of Greece participated in the confederation. Thucydides was an Athenian and a contemporary of Herodotus as a fifth century BCE historian. The debates concerning the superiority of either Herodotus or Thucydides revolve around two different types of history. This paper will not debate the supremacy of either historian, as both are valuable to understanding the formation of a Greek culture. He wrote about the Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens in 431 BCE as he experienced it as an eyewitness and participant. 23 The civil war between two Greek states is explained, as are its causes. The introduction of The History of the Peloponnesian War even offers information about the formation of a Greek state with distinct Greek culture. In the first chapter of Thucydides history he explains the background of Hellas in times that were, to him, ancient. According to Thucydides, the population had no settlements and tribes roamed throughout Greece without capitals or agriculture. 24 Prior to the Trojan War the name of Hellas did not exist, and nor did a distinct Hellenic culture. According to Homer, the main source of information regarding the Trojan War, it was not until the war that Hellenes were 22 Freeman, Freeman, Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian Wars, trans. Richard Crawley (New York: EP Dutton & Co., 1914), 2.

8 Stringer 8 strong enough to form a united culture. Thucydides says the people were prevented by their want of strength and the absence of mutual intercourse from displaying any collective action. 25 Until Minos learned to sail and taught the other Greeks about naval technology, the Greeks could not unite against those across the sea. 26 A comparison of the Hellenes prior to the Trojan War with the barbarians of Thucydides s time is even made, showing the distinction of Greek culture that was present in the fifth century BCE. 27 This information places the very early stages of Hellenic culture earlier, with the colonies of early Greeks and fighting against early barbarians. Thucydides also uses the Persian Wars as a turning point in the creation of a Greek culture. Prior to the threat of an invasion, Thucydides says that there was no union of subject cities round a great state, no spontaneous combination of equals for confederate expeditions; what fighting there was consisted merely of local warfare between rival neighbours. 28 In explaining the reasons behind the war between Sparta and Athens, Thucydides also describes the Hellenic confederation against the Persians. The merger of various city-states against the common enemy, the Other, was one of the main reasons that the Hellenic culture emerged, according to Thucydides. 29 Greek art and material cultures are also a source than may be used to understand the use of the other in the development of a Hellenic culture distinct from outside groups. A particular example is in the depictions of the marbles from the top of the Parthenon in Athens. Athenians 25 Thucydides, Ibid. 27 Thucydides, Ibid, Ibid., 12.

9 Stringer 9 may have been trying to defeat Persia through building projects as well as battle. Some of the depictions on the marbles show Greeks fighting centaurs, Amazons, or other mythical creatures which are not of the norm. This could be an allegory for the other, possibly the Persians, who are not Greek and therefore inferior or uncivilized. 30 The concept of a distinct Greek culture is complicated due to the independent and variable city-states, or poleis, that were prevalent throughout Archaic and Classical history. The autonomous groups each had a culture unto their own, while also participating in the greater community of Hellas through language, religion, common enemies, and to an extent, a common past. However, those commonalities are evident from the primary source material. The role that outsiders played in the development of a Greek culture, through either colonization or invasion, can only be inferred from the primary sources. There was already a common culture to some degree before the Persian Wars, but surely the confederation helped to strengthen those mutual ties. Depictions and stories about those outsiders served to reinforce the idea of Hellas and the Hellenes as a strong front against outsiders. 30 Yannis Hamilakis, Stories from exile: fragments from the cultural biography of the Partheno (or Elgin ) marbles, World Archaeology, 31 (1999): 306.

10 Stringer 10 Bibliography Freeman, Charles. Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Hansen, Morgan Herman. 95 Theses about the Greek 'Polis' in the Archaic and Classical Periods. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 52, no. 3 (2003): Hamilakis, Yannis. Stories from exile: fragments from the cultural biography of the Partheno (or Elgin ) marbles. World Archaeology 31 (1999): Herodotus. The Histories. London: Penguin Books, Lomas, Kathryn. Review of Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture, by Jonathan M. Hall. Bryn Mawr Classical Review (April 2004), 26.html (accessed February 15, 2011). Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian Wars, trans. Richard Crawley. New York: EP Dutton & Co., 1914.

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