Spain in the Middle Ages. From Frontier to Empire,

Transcription

1 Spain in the Middle Ages From Frontier to Empire,

2 NEW STUDIES IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY General Editor: Maurice Keen PUBLISHED Roger Collins EARLY MEDIEVAL SPAIN Unity in Diversity (Second edition) Alan Forey THE MILITARY ORDERS FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE EARLY FOURTEENTH CENTURIES Michael Haren MEDIEVAL THOUGHT The Western Intellectual Tradition from Antiquity to the Thirteenth Century (Second edition) Edward James THE ORIGINS OF FRANCE From Clovis to the Capetians Angus McKay SPAIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES From Frontier to Empire, David Potter FRANCE The Emergence of a Nation State Michael Richter MEDIEVAL IRELAND The Enduring Tradition Mark Whittow THE MAKING OF ORTHODOX BYZANTIUM, FORTHCOMING Jeremy Johns EARLY MEDIEVAL SICILY Continuity and Change from the Vandals to Frederick II,

3 Spain in the Middle Ages From Frontier to Empire, ANGUS MacKAY MACMILLAN

4 Angus MacKay 1977 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written pcm1ission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence pem1itting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottcnham Court Road, London WI P 9HE. Any person who docs any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 1977 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L TO Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / II OJ For Linda, Angus John and Anne Marie

5 Contents Acknowledgements vii Chronological Table IX INTRODUCTION The Background of Early Eleventh-century Spain 7 1 PART I: THE AGE OF THE FRONTIER, c PROTECTION RACKETS AND CRUSADERS, c. I The Eleventh Century: Warriors and Monks in the Age of Parias 15 The Twelfth Century: Monks and Warriors in a Crusading Age 26 2 SociETYANDTHEFRONTIER,c. I The Moving Frontier, Colonists and Problems of Manpower 36 The Militarisation of Social Groupings 45 3 THE PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF RECONQUEST, c Reconquest and Repopulation The Reconquest and the Economic Structure 4 THE FRONTIER AND CuLTURAL CHANGE The Translators Informal Acculturation 5 CoNSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTs: KINGS AND Cortes Royal Authority in Castile, c. I IOD-I350 Constitutionalism in the Crown of Aragon, c. IIOO-I g6 104 PART II: FROM FRONTIER TOWARDS EMPIRE, c I500 6 THE PoLITICs of MARITIME ENTERPRISE AND THE FoRMULATION of ABsoLUTISM The Hundred Years War and Naval Enterprise Absolutism in Castile 121 I21 131

6 vi CONTENTS 7 INsTITUTIONAL CHANGES AND ExPERIMENTS 143 Royal Government in Castile Contributions by the Crown of Aragon 8 EcoNOMIC PROBLEMS AND SociAL UNREST Contrasting Economic Fortunes Social Change and Unrest 9 SoCIETY, RELIGION AND CuLTURE Reform, Religious Sentiment, Heresy, the Inquisition Ballads, Tiles and the Frontier Courts, Scholars and Humanists CoNcLusioN Bibliographies Abbreviations Introductory Note A Select Bibliography of Works in English B Select Bibliography of Works in Other Languages References to Quotations Rulers of the Period Glossary Index MAPS Medieval Spain: Physical Features 2 The Reconquest 3 The Pilgrim Route to Santiago de Compostela XV 4 Andalusia after the Thirteenth-Century Reconquest xv1 5 The Geography and Speed of Popular Unrest: the 1391 Pogrom xvu Xlll XlV Graph Index of Devaluation of the Castilian Maravedi in terms of Gold and Silver, xviii

7 Acknowledgements This book has been written m the intervals of teaching at the University of Edinburgh and its appearance is due not least to colleagues and students whose comments have helped me to clarify ideas which are now less half-baked than they would otherwise have been. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Professor Denys Hay, who first turned my thoughts in the direction of medieval Spain and who has been a source of encouragement and help ever since. The editor of the series, Mr Denis Bethell, has devoted much time to helping me to say what I meant, and the book has benefited greatly from his constructive comments and advice. My father has read successive drafts and has saved me from many a blunder. Dr Richard Hitchcock, Dr Salvador Giner and Mr T. H. Newcombe have commented on sections of the book and have helped me on particular points. Although archival material has been used for the elaboration of ideas and interpretations (particularly in the second half of the book), the use of extended references in a work of this size would be a luxury. Similarly I have drawn on the researches of so many scholars, most of whom are mentioned in the bibliographies, that I can only express my general gratitude here. However, references are given for quotations. My greatest debt is to my wife without whose comfort and help this book would truly never have been written. The illustration on the dustcover depicts James I of Aragon in battle against the Moors, Detail from a panel in a fourteenth-century Valencian altarpiece dedicated to St George; reproduced by courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

8 Chronological Table oo 816 c ! c c. 1o6o 1064 C Muslims win battle of Guadalete and invade Visigothic Spain. Christians under Pelayo win victory at the 'battle' of Covadonga. Charles Martel defeats the Muslims at the battle of Poi tiers. 'Abd al-rahman I establishes emirate of Cordoba which is politically independent of Damascus. Charlemagne besieges Zaragoza and his rearguard is defeated by the Basques at Roncesvalles. The Franks take Barcelona and the Spanish March of the Carolingian Empire is in the process of formation. The Malikite rite is introduced to al-andalus. The relics of StJames are found and begin to focus attention on Santiago de Compostela. Reign of Alfonso III of Leon ( ), during which the Christians advance to the Duero. 'Abd al-rahman III proclaims himself caliph. Count Fermin Gonzalez of Castile ( ) and the beginnings of 'independent' Castilian power. Death of al-hakam II; al-mansur the power behind the throne in al-andalus. Al-Mansur sacks Barcelona (985), Leon and Sahagun (g88), and Santiago de Compostela (997). Caliphate of Cordoba finally breaks up into Taifa kingdoms. Castile and Leon united under Ferdinand I. Birth of the Cid. Compilation of the Usatges begins. Crusade against Barbastro and beginnings of the Aragonese reconquest. Beginnings of the Romanesque cathedral at Santiago de Compostela. Gregory VII asks Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon to establish the Roman rite.

9 X I08I I III8 II26-98 II37 I I39 I I40 c C. I I I2I2 I2I3 I2I5 I229 I230 I230-I 1236 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Banishment of the Cid by Alfonso VI. Toledo is taken and the Christians advance to the Tagus frontier; Bernard de Sedirac subsequently becomes archbishop of Toledo and Cluniac influence is strengthened. The Almoravids arrive in al-andalus and Alfonso VI is defeated at the battle of Zalaca. The Cid captures Valencia; he dies in 1099 and the Christians lose Valencia in I 102. Death of Yiisuf b. Tashufin. Alfonso the Battler takes Zaragoza. Averroes of Cordoba. Union of Catalonia and Aragon. Portugal becomes an independent kingdom. The beginnings of Cistercian foundations in Spain. The end of Almoravid rule in al-andalus and the beginnings of Almohad power. Foundation of the Order of Calatrava. 'School of Translators' in Toledo. Representatives of the towns attend the cortes of Leon. The Almohads defeat Alfonso VIII at Alarcos. Christians defeat the Almohads at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Peter II killed at the battle of Muret and Catalan power in southern France collapses. Foundation of the university of Salamanca. James I takes Mallorca. Final union of Castile and Leon. End of Almohad power in Spain. Muslim resistance crumbles and the Christian reconquest accelerates to take Cordoba (1236), Valencia (I238), Murcia (I243), Seville (I248) and Cadiz (I265). Nasrid rulers establish their power in Granada. Treaty of Corbeil between James I of Aragon and Louis IX of France. Mudejar rebellions in Andalusia and Murcia. Conquest of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon. Privilegio de La union.

10 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE XI g 1449 Foundation of the university of Lerida. Beginning of the Hundred Years War. Alfonso IX of Castile defeats the Muslims at the battle of Salado. Peter IV of Aragon annexes the Balearic islands. The Black Death. The accession of Peter the Cruel is followed by the beginnings of Trastamaran opposition and propaganda. Treaty of Toledo between Henry II of Castile and France. Henry II (of Trastamara) kills his half-brother Peter the Cruel at Montiel. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, marries Peter the Cruel's daughter, Constance, and assumes the title of king of Castile. John I of Castile defeated by the Portuguese at the battle of Aljubarrota. Lancastrian army disembarks at La Corufia, but the invasion of Castile subsequently ends in failure. Treaties with Lancaster and the Portuguese; end of the Spanish phase of the Hundred Years War and of the Lancastrian claims to the Castilian throne. Anti-Jewish feeling sparks off a wave of pogroms in the towns of the Iberian peninsula. Death of Ibn Khaldiin. One of the regents of Castile, Ferdinand, takes Antequera from the Moors; death of Martin I of Aragon raises the problem of succession to the throne of the Crown of Aragon. The Compromise of Caspe - the regent of Castile, Ferdinand of Antequera, becomes king of Aragon. Ceuta is taken by the Portuguese. Alfonso V of Aragon gains control of Naples. John II of Castile and Alvaro de Luna defeat their enemies at the battle of Olmedo. Anti-converso movement in Toledo and rebellion of the town against royal authority.

11 Xll! !469!473 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Execution of Alvaro de Luna. Cortes of Barcelona coincides with Biga-Busca crisis in Barcelona, continuing tension over the remensa problem, and constitutional clashes between the cortes and the monarchy. Civil and remensa wars in Catalonia. The effigy of Henry IV of Castile deposed; civil wars in Castile. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. Massacre of conversos in Andalusian towns; printing begins in Spain. Setting up of the Inquisition. Union of Castile and Aragon. Sentence of Guadalupe deals with the remensa problems. Conquest of Granada; expulsion of the Jews; Columbus discovers America. Moriscos forced to choose between baptism and expulsion.

12 MAP Medieval Spain: Physical Features (F[f'~!TI) D ooott lll)over 3000ft

13 MAP 2 The Reconquest CClllQ) " (!l) ~~,ceres Place and date of reconquest --to4o Limits & dates of the reconquest ~ T~e =~~~~nu:ssee reco~quest.. Castilian The Kingdom of Granada

14 [1) From Tours, Poitiers, Boraeaux llj From Vezelay, Limoges, Perigueux ~ From Moissac, St Foy de From Toulouse, Montpellier 0 Km MAP 3 The Pilgrim Route to Santiago de Compostela

15 ~ Exclusively Christian areas.. Areas where, because of capitulations, Moors & Christians coexisted until 1264 MAP 4 Andalusia after the Thirteenth-Century Reconquest

16 . Leon Burg.. s Logrono \ \ Palencta~l2 Aug \ ~ \ \ \---\ \ \ \ I omiles 200 Okm 300 M A P 5 The Geography and Speed of Popular Unrest: the 1391 Pogrom

17 Index of Devaluation of the Castilian Maravedi in terms of Gold and Silver, r3go-r48o = roo (Calculated from Data in the Cathedral Archive of Burgos)