The Question of Freedom. Herodotus Histories is the only written Hellenic account of the Persian Wars. The wars

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1 Forsee 1 Jessica Forsee Dr. Shannon CL 385 October 27, 2015 The Question of Freedom Herodotus Histories is the only written Hellenic account of the Persian Wars. The wars were the first test of the Greeks against a foreigner invader. The Persian king Xerxes led the second attempt of invading Greece starting 486 BC and his large scale invasion force countered the Greek smaller force. However, Xerxes force was made of mostly enslaved soldiers from prior lands he conquered in his quest to the Peloponnese, while the Greeks freely fought to defend their own lands. Herodotus carefully notes the motif of freedom versus slavery in order to compare the two lands. The Persian Wars between the Greeks and Persians show a clear distinction between the Hellenic and Persian perspective on ruling their respective people. Xerxes ultimate goal for Greece is enslaving its people, in order to grow his empire. After Athens burned the Persian capital of Sardis during the Ionian Revolt, Xerxes begins preparing to march against them (Herodotus 7.8γ). Xerxes ambitious goal to have rule over a single territory can only be achieved if the guilty as well as those who are innocent bear the yoke of slavery (Hdt. 7.8γ). In Xerxes only seeing enslavement as the option to rule, Herodotus shows the end game of his expansion. Xerxes is so consumed in glory-seeking and wanting to avoid proving inferior to [his] predecessors by successfully expanding Persia s reaches in the world (Hdt 7.8α). Understanding Xerxes motive to invade is critical because it

2 Forsee 2 shows that he has no problem in enslaving the innocent to achieve his goals, a character flaw that late affects his own campaign against Greece. Xerxes prepares his invasion with a force of subjugated soldiers and Herodotus carefully notes the enslaved groups and lands. Egyptians, Scythians, and various other lands gave the Persia ships, men, cavalry, and food. This large force shows Xerxes own hybris due to his recent conquests from the various lands (Hdt ). However, when his uncle Artabanos fears a possible failure, Xerxes worries and questions the number of his forces, and states, Well, then, if it appears to you that our forces insufficient, another army could be mustered at once. (Hdt. 7.48). He feels that by entering Greece with a large following, the Greeks cannot possibly win. Noting how flippant Xerxes says he can gain another army, Herodotus shows that Persian rule is slowly expanding closer to mainland Greece. Interestingly, Xerxes never calls these subjugated people, Persian citizens, they are rather just a tool for Xerxes to use. This presents a lack of respect for his soldiers that proves critical for the Persians, they serve out of fear not out of desire to expand Persian rule. Xerxes slaves also made great engineering feats to ensure a Persian victory against Greece. The bridge over the Hellespont was created in order to quickly get troops, cargo, horses, and slaves over the Hellespont without having to use ship transportation (Hdt. 7.8β). After a storm destroyed the first bridge, Xerxes ordered the overseers of the bridge to be beheaded (Hdt. 7.35). Ordering other slaves to the joyless office of constructing the bridge, the Persian slaves made a bridge that had 360 penteconters and triremes with planks and cables connecting each of them (Hdt. 7.36). The construction of the bridge could not be possible without Xerxes slave labor. As he has the large numbers of slave soldiers, he can also use them for other purposes, such as construction. The advantage of numbers is on the Persians side, for they can

3 Forsee 3 quickly and efficiently get to Greece using bridges made of boats and gain more numbers by conquering lands that they come across. Xerxes is a ruthless dictator over his subjects. He only cares about achieving his goals of taking Greece. He sees everyone beneath him as servants to his cause. One instant of Xerxes treatment of his subjects that Herodotus notes is Xerxes alliance with Pythios, a wealthy Lydian who offers Xerxes money and his sons to the army in order to be protected from his invasion (Hdt ). Xerxes is happy with his hospitality of providing monetary support to Persia. However, when Pythios asks for his eldest son to be recalled from battle, Xerxes is angered calling Pythios a despicable wretch and explicitly calling him a slave to the Persian cause (Hdt 7.39). As Pythios appeased Xerxes financial aids, Xerxes assumed Pythios to be a slave to his needs. Xerxes orders the son to be executed, respecting Pythios prior hospitality enough to not kill him and his younger sons, and the eldest son s body to be separated and the halves placed on either sides of the marching army (Hdt 7.39). This brutal treatment of Pythios son highlights one of Xerxes flaws carelessness about his subjects. Xerxes felt betrayed by Pythios desire to protect his oldest son and not in fully supporting Xerxes campaign enough to give his son to Xerxes army. Unlike the Greeks, who are unified to defend their freedom against the Persians, Xerxes rules over slaves and is ruthless in his treatment of them. The Persians ruthless and barbaric conquest of North Greece shows the harsh conditions of Xerxes rule. Persians burn down twelve towns in Phocis and rape the Phocian women to the point of death (Hdt. 8.33). Herodotus explicitly states this treatment to show that North Greece s destruction was the effect of Persian savagery. In showing Xerxes treatment of the conquered Greeks, Herodotus makes it clear what could happen to the remaining Greeks if they fail against Xerxes.

4 Forsee 4 If Xerxes is successful, then this would be the overall treatment of all Hellenes a complete compromise of Greek freedom that would be subjugated to Persian rule. The Greek freedom did not, however, come without its limitations. The Spartans, the best Hellenic hoplite force, are willing to fight for the freedom of all Greece. Demaratos, exiled Spartan king, tells Xerxes that the only master the Spartans have is the law which they fear more than Xerxes (Hdt ). This law that Spartans inwardly fear forbids fleeing from battle in order to remain in their rank and either perish or prevail (Hdt 7.104). Rather than being submissive to a ruler, Spartans function only by their laws laws that call for complete willingness to die for their comrades and sacrifice any form of selfishness. When Darius II sent two heralds to request Sparta to submit to him in the first attempt at invading Greece, the Spartans killed them and in retribution for their murders, two volunteers went to Xerxes to die for Sparta s cruelty. Hydranes, an ally of Xerxes, insults the volunteers for being submissive enough to die for their government s action. The volunteers say to Hydranes that he know[s] well how to be a slave but have not yet experienced freedom that they will always fight and willingly die for Sparta (Hdt ). In retrospect and given the Spartan value system, this instance brings forth a disadvantage to Hellenic freedom. Is willing to die for your city based on the values of fear and respect truly freedom or rather is it simply being governed by extremist laws? Herodotus lists the Greek fighting force to show the somewhat unitary effort of the Greeks versus the singular effort of the Persians. The Greeks are all aware of Xerxes invasion forces and that they are outnumbered. But by coming together, they could successfully defend their lands. The Hellenic League cities and their respective generals meet at Salamis in 480 BC to discuss plans. Eurybiades, the Spartan who heads the League, allows anyone to speak their

5 Forsee 5 opinion at this council (Hdt. 8.49). However, at the time of the meeting, Xerxes forces destroys the city of Athens the city that boasts the best contributions to the League s naval forces, in both ships and sailors many generals flee back to their ships with the intent on leaving Salamis and going back to their cities (Hdt. 8.56). Themistokles, a stratēgos of Athens, believes that all of Greece will be destroyed by this bad counsel that lacks the strong-willed leadership that would not allow this lack of comradery among the league (Hdt. 8.57). The complete Hellenic freedom is detrimental to the unity among the Hellenic League. Cities are not truly allied with each other and seek only to protect themselves not each other, as Herodotus notes when the generals flee the council at news of Xerxes forces getting closer to Salamis. The problem in the democratic-like council of the Hellenic League is that there was no true unifying cause other than the threat of Xerxes. Each city-state worked only to protect themselves. Themistokles gathers the fleeing generals back to Salamis out of fear for the Athenians taking refuge in Salamis falling to Xerxes. He counters the majority opinion of moving the Hellenic League s force to the Isthmus of Corinth by stating fighting at Salamis would not lead the Persians to the Peloponnese (Hdt. 8.60β). However, when Corinthian Adeimantos attacks Themistokles, Themistokles threatens to retreat all 200 Athenian triremes to Italy (Hdt ). Themistokles is well-aware of the detrimental impact an Athenian retreat would be to the Hellenic League. As the league does not have any punishments against those that flee from the Persians, rather only against those that medize with Persia, theoretically Athens can freely leave the league in order to protect themselves. This lack of obligations to the League shows the negative effects of Hellenic freedom each city is free to make their own decisions based on self-interests, rather than a unitary decision that works for overall Greek protection. Even Artemisia, female aid to Xerxes, knows of the Greeks disunity. Appealing to Xerxes, she

6 Forsee 6 tells him that once he attacks Hellenes that each one will flee to [their] own city (Hdt. 8.68β). Though Greeks are free to make their own decisions to defend their cities, it causes conflicts and disunity among each other. While Xerxes is a singular and forceful ruler, his subjects are slaves to his command and therefore do not have any desire for his campaign. The large fighting force of the Persians is unorganized and lacks purpose amongst the soldiers. At Salamis, while the Hellenes fight with the triremes, the Persians fail to make a sensible strategy. Herodotus does however, note the sense of urgency in which the Persians fought claiming everyone fought eagerly and in fear of Xerxes, thinking that the King was watching him (Hdt. 8.86). The slave soldiers fight to protect their own punishments out of immense fear of their master. The eagerness the Persians show is not a part of their own hate against Greece rather the horror they would know if they fail Xerxes. Despite the supposed five million strong force, the different groups of soldiers make it difficult to communicate battle plans (Hdt ). Artemisia, close advisor to Xerxes, foretells the communication and organization problem on the sea and calls for a land battle, by stating that bad slaves tend to belong to good people (Hdt. 8.68γ). Since Xerxes is the best man among all, he will have the worst slaves and it will prove difficult to rule and control the slaves. By inflaming Xerxes ego, yet telling him the truth, Artemisia fails to successfully guide Xerxes; rather, Xerxes becomes excited to continue his conquest. Herodotus tells the story of Artemisia s conversation with Xerxes to express the overall lack of respect from Xerxes subjects and troops. Xerxes does not see them as loyal subjects, but rather as tools to achieve his goal. The Greeks punish the Hellenes that medized, sided with Persia. A Thracian king gouged out his six sons eyes when he found that they went to the Persian army, stating he himself would not willingly become [Xerxes ] slave (Hdt ). This instance shows the importance

7 Forsee 7 of freedom to all Greeks, a value that proves more important than familial bonds. Greek forces went to Thebes after the Battle of Plataea to lay siege to the city. Theban leaders submitted to Xerxes rule and after nineteen days, they surrendered, expecting forgiven, but were sequentially executed. Punishing the pro-persians ensures the continued freedom and protection for all Hellenes. After the war was done, there still remained paranoia against another possible Persian invasion. An example of this is Athens siege of Sestos where many Persians sought refuge after the war and also where the connect cables were after Xerxes took down the bridge over the Hellespont (Hdt ). In Athens defense for the long siege of Sestos and the execution of Artayktes, a close aid of Xerxes, was that they were still protecting Greece against any pro- Persians sympathizers (Hdt ). Though the actions taken against medized Greeks and the Persians after the war may have been to ensure the longevity of the Hellenic victory, it does bring forth the question of necessity. The actions taken by Greeks say that they are done to ensure freedom, however, compromise the freedoms of others, such as the Persians free ability to retreat after the war, and the medized Greeks who supported Persians out of fear. The Persian Wars was the first foreign war against the Peloponnese and tested the Greek value systems of freedom and respect. The conflict between quantity and quality of soldiers brought forth the question of slavery versus freedom. Greeks all over fought to defend their own lands and were not truly unified by desire to protect all of Greece, rather just themselves. While Persian slaves from various lands were weapons to achieve Persian King Xerxes plan to grow and enslave his empire. Herodotus, being a Greek, gives audiences the Hellenic perspective of the wars and uses the motif of freedom and slavery to highlight and analyze the extreme difference between the two fighting forces.

8 Forsee 8 Works Cited Robert B. Strassler (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor, 2009

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