FOUR HISTORIC CITIES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS

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1 FOUR HISTORIC CITIES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS Values and Challenges This book introduces four historic cities of European and even global significance: Gjirokastra, Ioannina, Ohrid and Prizren. Not only are they and their region the southwestern Balkans still almost unknown to the rest of Europe, but their inhabitants themselves, due to the course of history, have known little about each other for many decades. The book for the first time puts the urban and cultural heritage, as well as the management problems, of the four cities into a common context, and introduces the present-day knowledge about them to an international audience. First and foremost, however, it aims to strengthen the awareness that the cities of this region, essentially shaped by the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires, are part of Our Common European Heritage, which to preserve and maintain therefore is a task for all of Europe. This publication has been produced under the Project European Values in Heritage, funded by the European Commission European Commission FOUR HISTORIC CITIES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS FOUR HISTORIC CITIES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS Stephan Doempke, Anduela Lulo Caca and Sadi Petrela (eds.) Values and Challenges

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3 FOUR HISTORIC CITIES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS Values and Challenges Stephan Doempke, Anduela Lulo Caca and Sadi Petrela (eds.) published by the Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organisation in cooperation with Academy for Training and Technical Assistance EGNATIA EPIRUS Foundation Macedonian Artisan Trade Association Tirana

4 List of Contents Preface... 7 Sadi Petrela The EVAH Project and the Network of Historic City Centers of Southeast Europe... 9 Stephan Doempke The Historic Fabric of Balkan Towns: Space, Power, Culture and Society Maximilian Hartmuth Gjirokastra The City of Stone Stephan Doempke (with Oliver Gilkes, Sadi Petrela, Emin Riza and Elenita Roshi) Introduction History The Historic Town The Castle The Bazaar Religious Buildings The Residential Quarters Management Ioannina The City of Arts and Letters Varvara N. Papadopoulou Introduction History City Monuments

5 The Castle The Christian Monuments of the City The Muslim Monuments of the City Buildings of Architectural and Historical Interest Museums The Islet Management Issues - Vassilis Birbos Prizren The City of Filigree Bariu Zenelaj Introduction Kosovo and Prizren Cultural Heritage Monuments Management Challenges in the Historic Center Ohrid The City of Centuries Goran Patchev Introduction Historical Importance What Famous Persons Say About Ohrid Important Archeological and Architectural Monuments Ohrid Handicrafts Management Bibliography The Authors Photo and Map Credits The EVAH Partners Useful Addresses

6 Doempke, Stephan; Lulo, Anduela; Petrela, Sadi (eds.) Four historic cities in Western Balkans - Values and Challenges 200 pages, with photos and graphics and maps Published by the Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organisation in cooperation with the Academy for Training and Technical Assistance, EGNATIA EPIRUS Foundation and Macedonian Artisan Trade Association Tirana 2012 NE: Doempke, Stephan 1. Historic Cities 2. Cultural Heritage 3. Gjirokastra 4. Ioannina 5. Ohrid 6. Prizren 7. World Heritage 8. Arts and Crafts 9. Southeast Europe 10. European Values 11. European Commission 12. Civil Society Initiative Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organization 2012 This work with all its parts is protected by copyright. Any use beyond the strict limits of the applicable copyright law without the consent of the publisher is inadmissible and punishable. This refers especially to reproduction of figures and/or text in print or xerography, translations, microforms and the data storage and processing in electronical systems. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinions whatsoever on the part of the publishers concerning the legal status of any country or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory. The copyright for each article, photo and other illustration remains with its respective author. Authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of the editors, and do not commit them. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publishers except for the quotation of brief passages for the purposes of review. This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organization and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union. Editorial Staff: Vesna Avramovska, Clara Puech, Kalliopi Rekata, Bariu Zenelaj, Erkan Zerdari. Translations: Language Solutions L.t.d. Design and layout: Xhoan Guga, Delta Print Studio Printed by: Gent Grafik Acknowledgements This book was made possible by a grant from Directorate General XI of the European Commission under its Civil Society Facility. Our sincere thanks go to Henk Visser, Suzan Arslan and Genc Pasko from the European Commission for their always positive attitude, constructive advise and cooperative spirit, for their continuing encouragement, ready support and friendly cooperation. We are greatly indebted, first and foremost to the authors of the texts, photos, maps and figures, for their cooperation in the compilation of the materials for this book, to Lejla Hadzic, Albert Kasi, Kreshnik Merxhani, Elena Nasto, Enkeleida Roze, for their manifold advise and support in putting this book together, and to Katherine Kyes and Goran Todorovski for proofreading. Stephan Doempke, Anduela Lulo (Caca) and Sadi Petrela on behalf of the Editorial Staff 6

7 Preface The book Four Historic Cities of the Western Balkans Values and Challenges is an important component of the European Values in Heritage Project (EVAH), financed by the European Union. Like the project, the book is broken into four parts, one for each EVAH city: Gjirokastra, Ioannina, Ohrid, and Prizren. The book has clear unity and purpose; it aims to create yet another communication bridge to the cities, showing the common values and the specifics of cultural heritage that these countries bring to the European culture. The book shows cultural heritage as an identifying element, as a product of the common historic development and as a component of European integration. The same as EVAH, this publication sees Europe foremost as a cultural reality. The Western Balkans has relentless enthusiasm and hope for the invitation to join the European Union and the possibilities this integration would provide. Unfortunately, this enthusiasm is not met with corresponding efforts by management in cultural heritage and their familiarization with the current European standards. This publication looks at cultural heritage as a top development and integration opportunity, but unfortunately it is not recognized as such and therefore is not managed as it should be. This is the reason why cities with immense potential in the region often offer very little in reality. As in all the other project activities, the book was addressed to the public and the decision makers on a local, national and regional level. It reaches them in their own languages, in Albanian, in Greek, and in Macedonian (spoken in FYROM). It addresses European decision makers with the aim to help them better understand the potentials and possibilities, and even the obstacles the management of cultural heritage face in our countries. This is why the book is also published in English. We hope that in this sense, the book will be a two-way bridge which not only brings us closer to European realities but does the same in carrying our realities to Europe. Each of the four parts of the book were written in their native language by the relevant partners and their collaborators: The Academy for Training 7

8 and Technical Assistance (ATTA) in Prizren, EGNATIA EPIRUS Foundation (EEF) in Ioannina, The Macedonian Artisan Trade Association (MATA), and the Organization for the Conservation and Development of Gjirokastra (GCDO). As a representative of GCDO 1 (the lead organization of the EVAH project) and co-editor of this book, I want to show my appreciation for the organizations and authors who, with a praiseworthy initiative and effort, took on the responsibility for the content of their relevant texts. I also want to acknowledge them for their understanding in allowing some minor changes in the initial texts, during the editing process, which have not at all altered their content or form. The book contains an introduction on the social and cultural structure of the historic cities in the Balkans, written by Maximilian Hartmuth, as well as a detailed description of the activities of the EVAH Project and of the Network of Historic Cities of Southeast Europe, a organization which EVAH established in participation with four civil society organizations; the partners in the project. Established after an excellent 2-year collaboration for the implementation of EVAH, the Network shows great promise in continuing. The book FourHistoric Cities of the Western Balkans Values and Challenges, along with the manual Integrated Management of Historic Cities, and the documentary Walls and Bridges, which are the products of our joint project, can serve as a great platform and instrument for further fruitful collaborations in addition to what EVAH achieved: recognizing the possibilities offered by the management of cultural heritage as a basis of development and integration, setting forth an example and model of regional collaboration. On behalf of our partners I want to show my appreciation for the European Union which financed this publication and the entire EVAH project. Sadi Petrela Executive Director, Gjirokastra Foundation Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organization (GCDO). September GCDO has already taken on a new name and now it is called The Gjirokastra Foundation GF. The new name was not given to influence on the organization s goals and objectives, but only to be better adapted with the new realities of its activities. 8

9 European Values in Heritage and the Network of Historic City Centers of Southeast Europe by Stephan Doempke* Cities and regions are significant players in the European context by virtue of their cultural heritage, both non-material in the form of skills and techniques, customs and usages and cuisine and material in the form of buildings, natural and cultivated landscapes, works of art and appliances. Historically, the heritage of independent, competing cities and regions is older than that of nation states... In many European cities and regions, the cultural heritage that is superficially recognisable in characteristic style features packs a huge spectrum of cultural difference into a tiny space. These historically integrated reminders of cultural diversity can also help us to integrate today s cultural differences and to assume ownership of them... Only if we continue to recognise just how much migration and mobility have been responsible for the historical integration, development and cultural character of Europe, and how emphatically transcending both local limitations and the lure of nationalism its cultural heritage is everywhere a hybrid heritage, a mix of extremely varied social, ethnic and cultural ingredients from many sources, will we achieve a proper understanding and interpretation of our own heritage. For only then will that cultural heritage serve its true purpose: that of integration and identification through the creation of clear, credible self-images, in which the greatest possible number of Europe s inhabitants can see themselves reflected. ( Cities and Regions. Their Cultural Responsibility and How They Can Fulfil It. A Manual A Soul for Europe: Berlin 2009) However, the rapidly changing basic conditions of modern times (like e.g. the fast-growing economic competition and accompanying development pressure, climate change, demographic change, etc.) pose a big challenge on the management of many historic urban areas, which can no longer be handled by traditional mono-sectoral policies. The lack of multi-level exchange with responsible managing authorites, and the lack of integrated sustainable urban development policies which link the preservation of cultural heritage with the socio-economic development of historic urban landscape will eventually result in non-competitive urban areas with a low amenity value for inhabitants and visitors alike. (www. urbact.eu/en/ projects/cultural-heritage-city-development/hero/our-project/) 9

10 These quotes from key documents relating to European historic city centers state that the historic urban landscape cannot be merely seen as an accumulation of significant monuments but rather needs to be considered as a living organism and vital living space for its inhabitants. They illustrate better than anything else the general purpose of a project called European Values in Heritage (EVAH) and its relevance to the Western Balkans. The book presented here is one of the outcomes of this Project. It would be extremely difficult to find anyone in the Western Balkans who would not be convinced that they are part of Europe, both historically and culturally, and therefore membership in the European 10

11 Union is considered to be a quasi-natural consequence. However, while membership in the European Union is mostly seen as an opportunity for economic development and ensuring the rule of law, the awareness that the European Union is also a realm of shared cultural values (which are actually their foundation), is much less marked. As a result, the promotion of culture and heritage is not a high political priority in most Western Balkan countries. Therefore, promoting Europe as a cultural reality, and the understanding that common cultural values are at the basis of the political and economic stability which make the European Union such an attractive model, are of utmost importance in order to prepare potential member states for accession to the European Union. The objective of the EVAH Project was to make a substantial and sustainable contribution to this effect. The general deterioration of historic cities is a key problem related to cultural heritage in all post-socialist countries. This problem has many faces: - Historic buildings, especially private vernacular houses, are not restored or they are disfigured by inappropriate modern additions, often without permission. - Public urban structures such as pavements, squares, recreative spaces, lighting, etc. are neglected, or modernizations are made without proper recognition of authenticity, integrity or quality of the urban context. - Public services such as waste management and the regulation of traffic are highly ineffective, notably contributing to the visual and cultural disintegration of historic cities. - Handcraft workshops and shops are missing in historic cities or find it hard to survive because they are lacking an architectural environment which would create a conducive atmosphere for their businesses. The underlying root cause of these problems is a lack of knowledge, awareness and capacities among both the general public and decisionmakers on national, regional and local levels. This lack of awareness is evident in various ways: Most importantly, decision-makers do not sufficiently appreciate the importance of cultural heritage for development (economic development, human development, social cohesion) and so they do not understand the need for public investment in historic cities in order to promote business development and tourism. In societies where cooperation has never been strong, and under present-day conditions where the state faces two new pillars of power private business and civil society the insight in the need for cooperation among these three pillars is not yet well developed. Many decision-makers are also not aware of the implications of the existing legal framework for the restoration and revitalization of historic cities and the promotion of handcrafts. Whereas often national legislation efficiently protects individual cultural monuments, other related law such as privatization law, inheritance law, tax law, planning and building law 11

12 impedes the restoration of private historic buildings and prevents interior modernization which could help putting historic vernacular buildings to new types of usage. Because of a general lack of interest in cultural heritage, but also because culture is not a chapter in the EU accession procedure, the details of many European and international standards and traditions, and sometimes their existence, are unknow to most decision-makers. Without the possibility of international exposure, many of them may have never experienced in person the reasonably good appearance of historic cities almost everywhere in the European Union and thus have no possibility to realize that behind this situation is a highly-elaborate body of conventions, guidelines, recommendations and programmes which as a whole embody the European principles and values concerning cultural heritage, explicitly or implicitly. A key aspect of this concerns the cultural values associated with vernacular buildings and historic cities. Many decision-makers are unaware of key concepts in historic city preservation, such as authenticity and integrity, and lack knowledge how to transform them into practical guidelines. Not only do many of them lack the aesthetic standards in order to appreciate the need of clear guidelines for the design of houses, public spaces and objects in historic cities which confirm with historic style and appearance. Due to decades of an omni-powerful state and the wide-spread popular resentment against the state nowadays, the newlywon freedom and rights of the individual and the prevailing mentality of deregulation, decision-makers as well as house owners have difficulties to accept the need for guidelines and enforcement where the common goods are concerned, such as in historic cities. As a result of this situation, some necessary measures needed for the preservation and revitalization of historic cities and handcrafts remain undone, such as the reform of relevant laws, their efficient enforcement, and providing for a sufficient number of well-educated officials in the field. The general population and private businesses are left without an appropriate regulatory framework and even access to adequate information, and the amount of public investment remains far behind of what would be required. Although tourism is an explicit priority of most governments in Western Balkan countries, the level of active political effort for the establishment of tourism-related businesses in historic cities does not correspond to the stated priorities. In particular, artisans (and other cultural industries) - who could play an essential role in the development of historic quarters miss a proper understanding of their specific needs. The EVAH Project was launched on 1 January 2011 under the Civil Society Facility of the European Commission whose objective is to strengthen civil society within a participative democracy environment and culture, and to encourage the development of sustainable partnerships and networks of civil society organisations in order to contribute towards their increased 12

13 involvement and ownership both within the Western Balkans and between the region and the European Union. In the EVAH Project, four partners cooperated from four countries whose relationships in the recent past have been rather difficult: Albania, Greece, Kosovo and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organization (GCDO), the lead organization in the project, works towards the sustainable development of Gjirokastra and its region through conserving its historic buildings, fostering revitalization of the historic town, supporting sustainable tourism and promoting handcrafts and traditional skills. The Academy for Training and Technical Assistance (ATTA) was established with the aim to empower Kosovo civil society to build and empower their capacities. Their fields of intervention are capacity-building, community development, European integration, harmonization of Kosovo and EU public policies, public policy design and culture. The EGNATIA EPIRUS Foundation (EEF) from Ioannina, Greece, representing the partner from an EU country, promotes activities involving advanced information technologies and telecommunication networks, inter-border collaboration, the promotion and recording of the cultural heritage, alternative eco-agro tourism initiatives and the support of the crafts sector. Finally, the Macedonian Artisan Trade Association (MATA) is a non-profit, non-governmental organization aiming to foster the development of the crafts sector in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and to achieve tangible social changes and benefits for artisans by providing assistance in advocacy, product development, market access and capacity-building. The EVAH Project targeted primarily key decision-makers on national, regional and local levels to be involved in its activities, while the final beneficiaries were the residents and businesses, including artisans, with selling points located in the four historic cities, an estimated number of 40,000 persons. More indirectly, the entire wider populations of these cities, totalling about people, were benefitting from the Project. Throughout the project, reference was made to pertinent European instruments, organizations, projects, networks and initiatives. In particular, the Heritage as Opportunity (HerO) Project and A Soul for Europe, who are highly significant in this context, contributed greatly to a dialogue with EU counterparts. Considering that the imbalance of economic development and the preservation of the historic urban fabric often results in either economic stagnancy or the loss of cultural heritage, the Hero Project aimed to develop integrated and innovative management strategies for historic urban landscapes. Its main objective was facilitating the right balance between the preservation of built cultural heritage and the sustainable, 13

14 future-proof socio-economic development of historic towns in order to strengthen their attractiveness and competitiveness. A Soul for Europe is an initiative of European citizens who promote the power of culture in all fields of politics for the European integration, trying to build Europe through integrating national histories, value systems, world views and intercultural dialogue. Supported by the European Parliament, A Soul for Europe is building new communication paths and innovative co-operation models between civil society and the European institutions, national governments and other authorities. By publicising and explaining these European instruments, both the general public within the EU and the Western Balkans became better aware of the role that the EU plays in safeguarding and enhancing cultural diversity, and the project contributed to promoting the principles and values of the European Union and enhancing regional cooperation. In order to ensure the greatest possible effectiveness of the Project, at its beginning surveys were conducted among the decision-makers in order to gauge their level of knowledge and awareness about various aspects related to cultural heritage, and an IT Network Platform was established as a communication tool for the partners and associates as well as with the general public, decision-makers and interested NGOs. It was linked to other existing culture-related online platforms, such as European Heritage Network, HISTORICENTRES_NET, Epoch Network and CultureWatchEurope. Through its 23-months duration, the Project organized four practical workshops about themes which bore a direct relevance to the work of the decision-makers, such as Cultural Heritage as a Motor for Economic Development, Maintaining Knowledge: Arts and Crafts and the Revitalization of Historic Cities, EU Instruments for the Safeguarding of Cultural Heritage and European Values in the Management Guidelines for Historic Cities. Each workshop was attended by about 50 participants from the partnering countries, representatives of the Partners and the Associates, in particular the ministries in charge of cultural heritage and of urban planning, state agencies in charge of cultural heritage, standing commissions of the national parliaments in charge of cultural heritage and of urban planning, regional administrations or governments, and in the towns of the partnering CSOs, their mayors, municipality officials in charge of cultural heritage and of urban planning, and the Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Additional support was provided through the publication of a Manual on Management Guidelines for Historic Cities as a practical working tool and resource book to enable decision-makers on all levels of state to find practical guidance needed to take day-to-day decisions which affect the appearance of their historic cities. The manual draws from existing 14

15 standard literature and provides all relevant European and international conventions and other documents in the annexes. Special efforts were made also in order to familiarize the general public, and particular youth, with the problems of safeguarding and developing historic city centers. An educational DVD was produced for the use in schools and institutions of public education which contrasted the four project cities with Regensburg, an exceptionally well-managed historic city in Germany and an associate of the EVAH Project. Last but not least, young artists from the four cities were invited to reflect the theme of the project from an artistic or creative perspective. The artwork they produced was presented in a travelling exhibition. The development of a sustainable network among Civil Society Organizations working in the field of historic cities and handcrafts has led to an increased sense of involvement and ownership among them, and to building a strong regional partnership dialogue between Civil Society Organizations within the region itself, with public authorities and with their EU counterparts. The project has endeavoured to fostering awareness among the general public and decision-makers that they are Europeans not only based upon geography or economy, but primarily upon a shared cultural and historical heritage, as expressed in the statement that culture is the Soul of Europe. It explained that sharing a common history and culture is a defining element of Europe, and that cultural history is most prominently and visibly expressed in cities and buildings, both vernacular and religious, in styles which are characteristic and/or unique for Europe. Raised awareness about the European dimension of cultural heritage may lead to an increased appreciation of their historic cities and handcrafts, their authenticity, integrity and diversity among the general public and key decision-makers on all levels. They heard the message that culture and heritage are becoming the cutting edge in competition for investments, and were familiarized with the manifold European initiatives around historic cities. Hence they better realize their potential and are more ready to take the necessary measures for their preservation and development. At the same time, their capacity to solve the existing problems has been markedly increased. At the same time, the new network of Civil Society Organizations working for historic cities and handcrafts will develop and share a common general approach, goals and European orientation. They will better communicate, coordinate and cooperate among each other and with state authorities, based on an IT networking platform. In addition, the network of Civil Society Organizations will be a unified counterpart for European institutions, initiatives and networks working in the field of historic cities and handcrafts. All of the countries of the Western Balkans aspire to become members of the European Union indeed for all of them this is their highest political 15

16 priority. Beyond a general feeling of belonging to Europe, however, a great part of the population would have difficulties to explain exactly what makes them part of the European cultural realm. The long time of isolation, and later poverty, has prevented the possibility of developing an experience of shared values and principles for most inhabitants of the Western Balkans. In the project, we have presented the cultural heritage of the partnering countries as Our Common Heritage. We have encouraged a view that the cultural heritage of the four countries is a common heritage of all ethnic groups or nations who live here, thereby trying to contribute to inter-ethnic exchange and understanding. I.e., Albanians should consider heritage related to Macedonian, Greek etc. culture also as their own heritage and assume a responsibility to safeguard it, and in the same way, Macedonians should consider Albanian, Greek etc. heritage also as their own and assume the same responsibility for it, and so on for all of the nations who live in the area of the partnering countries, and indeed in the Balkans. In short, all ethnic communities should develop a sense of responsibility for all heritage rather than each community only for what they consider their own. This shall help to progress from a we vs. they mentality to a we together mentality. Secondly, we have also presented the cultural heritage of our countries decidedly as part of our common European heritage, representing European values, and this has been reflected by explaining common traits and features in the history and design of European cities. While we were also pointing out the differences, we were illustrating the Unity in Diversity principle of Europe one of its highest values. * Stephan Doempke has been the Coordinator of the EVAH Project until March

17 The Historic Fabric of Balkan Towns: Space, Power, Culture and Society by Maximilian Hartmuth Balkan towns as a mirror of society Among visitors from the rest of Europe, the historic fabric of urban settlements in the Balkan peninsula often evokes similar reactions: their pre-modern architecture and urban structure looks not only somewhat unfamiliar, in terms of style and technology it also looks unexpectedly homogenous in a vast region between Banja Luka and Edirne. The reason for both is that for a very long period between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries much of the peninsula was united under the rule of a single sovereign, the Ottoman sultan. In the wake of his installation on the throne in his capital of Istanbul in 1453 there developed a centralized state whose many subjects, their goods and ideas, travelled freely between the nodes of a dynamically expanding urban network in the Balkans and beyond. It was far from unusual, for instance, that a builder or carpenter from rugged West Macedonia would be found working 400km to the north, in Belgrade. Models for the region s monumental urban architecture often came from Istanbul, which also supplied the provincial society s upper strata with an elite style to be emulated in keeping with one s economic potency. In choices related to dress or the embellishment of one s home, confessional differences were often less critical than class differences. Yet, the outward appearance of towns did reflect a religious hierarchy that was fundamental to Ottoman society until the advent of modernity. While a large number of remarkable monuments were constructed in the Balkans rapidly developing urban settlements in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries, churches were not among them. Upon the Ottomans conquest of a given place, the most monumental building in town was usually converted into a mosque, and it was generally prohibited by Hanefite law to build churches ex novo. Necessary repairs to older structures were considered legitimate, but they required imperial permission. Churches built in the Ottoman Balkans before the nineteenth century were often rebuilt within the dimensions of the older buildings on site a regulation that certainly greatly limited design potentials until its gradual lifting in the nineteenth century. It was in the middle decades of that century, only few decades before the empire s demise, that the monumental church returned to Ottoman townscapes; but even then the tall belfries would not dare to exceed the height of mosque minarets. 17

18 In any case, it is important to realize that the Ottoman town in the Balkans was not a product of laisser-faire but followed certain conventions that have not always been visible to historians because they were rarely explicitly recorded. One of these was the understanding of townscapes as reflecting the Ottoman order of things, especially with regard to religious hierarchies. The typical separation of the city into a bustling downtown surrounded by a ring of almost exclusively residential districts must probably be said to have reflected the ideal of a functional separation between private and public lives. The traditional disposition of residences as free-standing structures in walled precincts with small gardens also made it possible not only to manage their exposure to sunlight but also to adapt these structures to changing needs in terms of spaces and functions. Their frequent location of dwellings on slopes, where possible, certainly made sewerage more efficient. While this architecture may thus have followed similar principles, it did vary greatly according to region. Frequent snowfall, for instance, may have made obligatory steep roofs, while lack of wood had people turn to stone. The difference, for instance, between dwellings in Bosnia and in neighbouring Herzegovina one region oriented toward the Adriatic, the other toward the Balkan interior, and both being separated by the main ridge of the Dinaric range can be considerable. Nonetheless, and despite what some books might suggest, we must admit that we know very little about residential architecture in the Balkans before the nineteenth century, simply because so few structures have survived that can be securely dated to this period. This also makes it hard to say something incontrovertible about the development of residential architecture in this region. The residential architecture of Balkan towns preserved to us reflects the range of types and forms found in the nineteenth century. Urban architecture While in very few cases (such as Sofia and Thessaloniki) we can still find monuments dating back to Late Antiquity, the old town districts of Balkan cities largely preserve the structure and fabric of the nineteenth century, even if their principal monuments are usually older. It was in this period that new urban models entered the Balkan stage and occasionally went into fierce competition with the traditional ones. Nowhere is this as visible as in Sarajevo, where there is a sudden change between the commercial district named Baščaršija a district whose structure can be traced back to the decades around 1500, but which in its present form reflects changes that occurred around 1900 (such as the open square with a pseudo-ottoman sebil-type water-dispenser) and the district around the Central European style high street called Ferhadija, which emerged as a counter-model to the old centre around In Skopje, the river Vardar is the border between a traditional bazaar district that emerged below the fortress starting from the fifteenth century and a modern part that developed rapidly only in the past century. In Sofia, the changes have been more incisive: that city s transformation into the capital of the Bulgarian nation around 1900 left few remnants of its Ottoman past. The ring road surrounding Sofia s centre recalls the configuration of Vienna, 18

19 where many Bulgarians went to study architecture and related fields in that period. Most Balkan cities oldest urban structures usually also date to the Ottoman period, and not earlier. Monumental exceptions include the several cathedral-type basilicas built in the Balkan interior in a period of restoration of Byzantine rule there in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with some of the best-preserved examples in Prizren, Serres, Verroia, and Ohrid. That period saw an earnest revival of urban life in the region after the incisive seventh-century barbarian invasions at a scale not to be repeated until the later fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It was then that many Balkan cities received their principal pre-nineteenthcentury monuments. As a rule, this was not an architecture that was the result of local processes and the (design) work of local artists, however; it followed types and styles formulated in what might be called the Ottoman metropolitan region around the Sea of Marmara, where the old court cities of Istanbul, Bursa, and Edirne (and hence also the principal achievements in Ottoman architectural design) were located. The standardization of Ottoman architectural types made it possible for fairly remote settlements to receive monuments of a relatively noteworthy character. Deviations from standard models were generally meaningful, in the sense that they reflected a given patron s exalted status or ambition, or date from a period in which details were not yet as standardized but left to the discretion of builders and masons. For instance, the unusual size and sophistication (in a provincial context) of the mosque of Gazi Hüsrev Beg mosque in Sarajevo probably echoes its patron s birth he was the Macedonian-born son of an Ottoman princess as well as the unusual degree of power yielded by its patron in a region in strategically important location for the expansion of Ottoman hegemony into Central and Southern Europe. Irrespective of size, the urban architecture of Ottoman towns drew upon a certain set of established types. In accordance with the settlement s significance, one would find Friday mosques (in the early period: usually only one), smaller prayer-houses meant for use by specific neighbourhoods, inns, covered marketplaces for luxury goods, bathhouses ( the coffeehouses of the fair sex ), elementary and higher schools, aqueducts, public fountains, etc. The popularity of domes as not only structural but also iconographic elements in this architecture is quite plain in many formerly Ottoman settlements. We know little about the original decoration in the interiors of these buildings, but the ornamentation of portals is sometimes significant. In the fifteenth century, bathhouses were often privileged in terms of their monumentality and decoration. At the end of that century, coinciding with a greater need for the supervision of Muslim worship in a time of heresies, an important shift was made that reserved most truly monumental architecture for Friday mosques. A city like Sarajevo could have as many as seven domed mosques. At the end of the sixteenth century came another shift an echo of developments in the capital 19

20 from the patronage of mosques to clusters of buildings around schools of higher education, medreses. However, this period also sees a significant decrease in architectural patronage in general. Compared to the period , few comparably monumental structures appear in the following three centuries. A major typological change took place only in the nineteenth century, when a modern infrastructure of schooling, security, and communication was introduced, dwarfing construction of buildings with religious functions. It is often overlooked that the advent of a European-type architecture and urban planning predated the independence of Balkan nations from Ottoman rule. The generally frequent conflagrations, aided by the then still widespread use of wood in architecture, were an opportunity for the state to intervene in the rebuilding of urban areas along modern, rational, principles. In the late period, the Ottoman state also occasionally needed to build entire new districts for (Muslim) refugee populations. Skopje s Madžir maalo (from Turkish Muhacir mahallesi, i.e. refugees quarter ) was the first in that city to be planned and develop on a rational, orthogonal grid. In late Ottoman Bitola there developed a representative European-style main street known as Širok sokak (literally: wide street ), but originally called Hamidiye, after sultan Abdülhamid II. This was also the name of a new, elegant suburban district of Thessaloniki. Different paths of development While many have been tempted to imagine the towns of Southeast Europe as representing certain types, in accordance with the formerly dominant powers in parts of the region we so read of the Ottoman town, a Venetian/Dalmatian counterpart, a Balkan town, a Hungarian town, etc. there are very few normative examples of such. It must not be forgotten that at the time of the Ottoman conquest there already existed towns in the Balkans. The Ottomans, in fact, occasionally seemed reluctant to intervene in drastic ways in the existing urban fabric. Sometimes defensive walls were razed and major churches were converted, but every so often none of that happened. In many cases, an Ottoman urban core with the relevant Islamic institutions developed outside the medieval walled towns, as a quasi new settlement, which, in time, usually superseded the older settlement s centre in terms of importance. To be sure, significant transformations occurred, but these are perhaps better described as an Ottomanization of existing settlements than an implementation of Ottoman urban models on a tabula rasa. That said, a significant number of Balkan cities are Ottoman foundations without medieval (urban) precedents, such as Sarajevo, Novi Pazar, Korçë, or Razgrad. Three examples of prominent historic Balkan towns discussed below shall provide an idea of the differing paths of development. The medieval walled town of Ohrid appears to have been taken by the Ottomans from an Albanian lord at the end of the fourteenth century. The Ottomanization that took place thereafter progressed as follows: The walled town s principal church, the eleventh-century Hagia Sophia, was turned into a Friday mosque. The area immediately around it became 20

21 a small government district, with the governor s residence, a mint for Ottoman coins, and a small shrine dedicated to a martyred Ottoman clerk. Save for this small area, the quarters within the medieval town walls remained predominantly Christian, however. The new, Muslim, Ohrid emerged outside the walls along the lakeshore. It was there that major Islamic institutions (including a medrese with a scriptorium) came to be located, and it was also there that the Ohrizade family, which appears to have dominated Ohrid s politics in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had their enormous residence and some public buildings connected to it. The family s ancestor had converted a monastery on a hilltop overlooking the town into a mosque, possibly in concert with the sultan. Far away from Ohrid s Muslim quarters, the building came to be identified with the fact that here free food was distributed to the needy, irrespective of creed. Perhaps this institution was instrumental for the prominence of the Ohrizade family in town. What thus can be reconstructed to a fair extent is a settlement that was both divided and united. The old walled town remained inhabited by non-muslims, save for one area around the pasha s residence and the Hagia Sophia in which the presence of the power of the Ottoman centre was felt. The more dynamic part of Ohrid was what we might call the Lower Town, however, which was the site of most of the town s Islamic institutions and of the residence of the locally dominant family. Perhaps Ohrid s urban structure can be seen as expressive not only of a Muslim/ Christian divide but also of that between a local Muslim elite (here represented by the Ohrizades) and the distant centre of Ottoman power (represented by the pasha and the sultan s mosque, i.e. the converted Hagia Sophia). Modern Ohrid s downtown developed from the once predominantly Muslim suburb in the flat land below the quarters in the walled city, which have remained a principally residential/touristic area. Skopje, which had also been an important medieval settlement and the residence of Serbian dynasts, was conquered around the same time as Ohrid. However, events unfolded quite differently there. Knowledge concerning the physical fabric of pre-ottoman Skopje is expected to increase with the publication of finds from the ongoing excavations in the castle area. It is clear, however, that Ottoman/Muslim Skopje developed in the depression between the castle and the Gazi Baba hill. Interestingly, the principal agents of this transformation were three generations of a family of frontier raiders, who had made Skopje their base for excursions into Albania and Serbia. Their founding of institutions resulted in the gradual emergence of a new commercial-cultural district in the area of today s Čair municipality. This was thanks to the institutions established there by the raider lord İshak Beg and his son İsa: bathhouses, hostels, prayer-houses, etc. Skopje s Great Mosque was built on the Gazi Baba hill by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II, however. Even though around 1500 the town s population was actually stagnating, the remarkable new monuments dating from this period show how Skopje had risen to Upper Macedonia s metropolis under Ottoman rule. It had also become a showcase for 21

22 architecture for the surrounding region, easily dwarfing contemporary architectural production in Ohrid, Bitola, and even Thessaloniki. With the arrival of railways and refugees from elsewhere in the Balkans began the gradual shift of the city s centre to the southern bank of the Vardar, where under Serbian and Yugoslav rule a new downtown emerged and went into competition with the old one north of the river. Sarajevo, finally, emerged as a new Ottoman settlement in an upland plain; its location was strategically imperative for the expansion into more northern areas fabulously rich in mineral resources. Sarajevo s early history is shady, but it seems that in the second and third quarters of the fifteenth century a frontier outpost in enemy territory merged with an existing (Christian) village next to a ford over the river Miljacka into a more significant settlement that could support the residence (saray) of an Ottoman governor. The principal agent in this process appears to have been the raider lord İsa Beg, the son of the aforementioned İshak Beg of Skopje. Sarajevo soon became the site of an industrious downtown ( Baščaršija ) perhaps a reflection of the importance played by trade in the genesis of a sixteenth-century Ottoman boomtown close to the Muslim-Christian frontier. In the middle decades of the sixteenth century, Sarajevo was equipped with an unusually monumental architectural fabric; few comparable monuments were added in the three following centuries. Under Austro-Hungarian rule ( ), the central position in the city s structure of the Baščaršija was successfully challenged by a Europeantype downtown district built adjacent to it. These developments mark the beginning of the city s westward expansion, continued under Yugoslav rule. First a rather marginalized oriental/colonial town, Sarajevo s population almost quadrupled after WWII. The names of the two new urban municipalities established in this period are expressive of this departure: Novo Sarajevo ( New Sarajevo ) and Novi Grad ( New Town ). The monumental centre shifted from the Baščaršija and the quarter around the Habsburg-built neo-medieval cathedral to the beginning of a seemingly endless multi-lane boulevard marked by skyscrapers challenging the existing minarets and belfries as the dominant vertical elements in Sarajevo s townscape. All three cases show that development was not motored by a monolithic culture, a specific spirit or mentality, but resulted from the agency of various groups and individuals with occasionally very different interests in both new and pre-existing settlements. In Ohrid and Skopje, these differences here possibly between Istanbul and provincial powerholders may have been reflected in the fabric of the site as well. Much more research of a comparative character is necessary before we can endeavour to make more general statements concerning Balkan urbanisms that will endure the test of time. 22

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25 GJIROKASTRA A Chronicle in Stone by Stephan Doempke (with Oliver Gilkes, Sadi Petrela, Emin Riza and Elenita Roshi*) Introduction Very rich in historical architectural values, the museum city of Gjirokastra is an important town that sheds light on what urban life was like in Albania in the late medieval period. With its dominating hill being a natural site for a military fortification, Gjirokastra drew its importance from its strategic location controlling the Drino Valley one of the main routes from the port of Durrës and central Albania to Greece and Byzantium. The Drino Valley s rich agricultural lands were the other reason for Gjirokastra s families rise to wealth. The historic town of Gjirokastra was inscribed into the World Heritage List in 2005 as a rare example of a well-preserved Ottoman town in the Balkans, deriving its outstanding universal value from two complimentary factors: the setting of the town and its traditional houses. Gjirokastra originated from a military and administrative castle out of which the town developed in the 13 th century. Unlike most other Balkan cities it did not begin as a craftsmen center, but was a town of Albanian farmers of large estate and administrators of the Ottoman Empire, which influenced the type of town and also the architecture of its residential houses. 25

26 It is the residential quarters that set the tone for the town. They were determined by the rugged terrain, characterized by steep slopes and escarpments, deep ravines and narrow ridges. As a result a unique type of house originated that shows a wide variety from having to adapt to changing terrain, resulting in a coexistence of the natural environment with human creations that gives the town its unmistakable character. Ismail Kadare was born in Gjirokastra in 1936, and is one of the most famous sons of the town. He is a man of letters - a poet, novelist, historian and journalist who has written extensively about Albania and its place in Europe. His home town is present in many of his works; three of them being exclusively about Gjirokastra: Kronikë në Gur (Chronicle in Stone), translated into many languages, Matters of Madness, published in 2005, and Wrong Dinner in It was a strange city, and seemed to have been cast up in the valley one winter s night like some prehistoric creature that was now clawing its way up the mountainside. Everything in the city was old and made of stone, from the streets and fountains to the roofs of the sprawling age-old houses covered with grey slates like gigantic scales. It was hard to believe that under this powerful carapace the tender flesh of life survived and reproduced. A Gjirokastra house is a unique mixture of Albanian, Ottoman and regional Epirote features. Its functional design is a mix of Albanian and Ottoman cultures, and reflects the economic activity of their owners as large farmers and administrators. Following Albanian tradition, the ground 26

27 floor is uninhabited and reserved for the storage of agricultural produce and for large cisterns, due to the lack of surface water in the town. This arrangement facilitates defending the house. The division and design of the rooms on the upper floors reflect the Albanian family and their way of life, tinted by Ottoman aesthetics and style of the time. The entire construction of the house, with the exception of the uppermost floor, is of stone, indicative of Albanian tradition. Only the uppermost floor is constructed of timber, wooden lath and plaster, and has a row of windows as well as terraces; all typical of Ottoman residential houses. The roofs of the house and gate are made of slabs of local limestone or slate, a unique Epirote stylistic element. The combination of these functional and stylistic features can be found nowhere except in Gjirokastra. Individual buildings of the kind exist in the region of Epirus, and there are several towns with purely Ottoman style houses throughout the Balkans. But both the multitude of such unique residences in an urban setting, virtually determining the character of the town, and the great variety of forms from almost purely defensive to largely urban, and from Albanian to Ottoman, make Gjirokastra an urban phenomenon without parallel anywhere in the world. History Archaeological evidence confirms that there has been a settlement in Gjirokastra since about 500 BC. Substantial block-built walls have been unearthed suggesting the site was a significant fortification in the pre- Roman period (before 168 BC) and was probably refortified at the end of the Roman Empire. The first reference to the settlement was recorded in 1336 by the Byzantine chronicler John Cantacuzene who mentions it both as a fortress and a town. The origin of the name Gjirokastra is less well-determined. The most colourful suggestion is that it was named after Princess Argyro, the sister of the feudal lord of the town who threw herself from the battlements, together with her young son, during the final siege on the city by enemies. Another suggestion is that the name came from either the Argyres, a pre- Roman tribal group who inhabited the area, or Argjyri, the name of a clan native to the Gjirokastra region. The most poetic explanation is that the city takes its name from the Greek words for silver (argýro) and castle (kastro); in reference to the grey stone walls, streets and slate roofs that shimmer like silver in the rain. The Drino valley has been a natural exchange route between the Adriatic Sea and Greece for thousands of years. Given its geographical importance as well as the rich agricultural lands, it has a long history of both peaceful settlement and bloody conflicts. Various cultures have coexisted and intermingled here, such as the Illyrian, Epirotic, Macedonian, Roman, Slavic, Albanian, Byzantine, Greek, Ottoman, Aromunian and Roma, and 27

28 the valley remains a multicultural region to this day. There were no cities in the valley until the Molossian King Pyrrhus founded Antigonea, on the eastern side of the Drino valley, in 295 BC. But following the defeat of King Philip V of Macedonia in 168 BC, the Roman Counsel Aemilius Paullus ordered the destruction of Antigonea, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery. In the 2 nd century AD Emperor Hadrian saw an opportunity to revive this depressed area by founding a new town. Hadrianopolis was built on a hill overlooking the Drino River in the centre of the valley in order to bring together the scattered communities of the valley; all of whom had been without a focal point since the destruction of Antigonea 400 years previously. In the 6 th century it was renamed Justinianopolis, and had its own bishop. Soon after, it was abandoned and, in the middle ages, was buried by river sediments. During the middle ages the region was in turmoil as various powers - Avars and Byzantines, Bulgars and Serbs - competed for power. The Normans under Bohemond attempted to conquer the area in the eleventh century from a base at Butrint. This was the era when the Albanians were first mentioned by that name and when they rose to rule their own states. These rulers required fortresses and, in the eleventh century, Gjirokastra Castle was constructed. 28

29 During the 13 th century Despotate of Epirus, Gjirokastra and its surrounding region were ruled by the Gjon Zenebishi family. However, the Ottoman Empire expanded into Europe in the late 14 th century and brought Gjirokastra under its sway by 1419, beginning a rule which was to last until 1912, almost 500 years. Around that time the city had 163 residential houses. It prospered as the capital of the Albanian Sanjak (an Ottoman administrative unit) for over a century, until it was superseded by Delvina during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( ). Gjirokastra retained an administrative role as the seat of a kadi (judge) and, coupled with its strategic location and rich hinterland, the city remained important and doubled its pre-ottoman population by It experienced further growth in the 17 th century when it had almost reached the extension of the present historical town, and the principles of its urban composition were laid. Evliya Çelebi was an Ottoman official who travelled all over the Empire on behalf of the Sultan in the 17 th century. He provided the first detailed description of Gjirokastra in the year 1670: The fortress is an old stonework construction situated along the ridge of a high cliff Its long solid ramparts resemble a gallery. Inside the fortress there is only one main street running from east to west. Ranged on both sides of the street are 200 two-storey stonework houses, roofed entirely with slate... In front of the eastern gate of the fortress, down a steep embankment, is the quarter of the infidels, called Kuçuk Varoş (Little Town). It consists of 200 illuminated spacious houses. Under the cliffs to the north of the fortress is the old bazaar, called the Fortress Bazaar, consisting of 40 little shops. This bazaar has wooden gates at both ends, much like those of a bedestan, which the watchmen close every night Ali Pasha of Tepelena took over Gjirokastra in Born near the small town of Tepelena in 1744, he rose from being the head of a band of bandits to becoming the regional governor Pasha - of Epirus. Under Ali Pasha, Gjirokastra became a strategic and commercial stronghold between his twin capitals of Tepelena and Ioannina, thus laying the foundation for its wealth. Gjirokastra flourished like never before, and it was during this time that the first large houses which give Gjirokastra its characteristic appearance today were built. However, Ali Pasha s ambitions to fortify his dominions sufficiently to be able to rebel against the Ottoman Empire failed when Sultan Mahmud II overthrew and executed him in Ioannina in After Ali Pasha was killed, Gjirokastra continued as an Ottoman administrative centre and as an agricultural and trading hub. 29

30 The English landscape painter and nonsense poet, Edward Lear passed through Gjirokastra twice, once in 1848 and again in 1859, over the course of his Balkan journeys. These were the twilight years of the Ottoman Empire, and Lear described and painted a world that was fast disappearing. Lear s writings, and above all, his sketches and paintings were the first visual and truly evocative descriptions of the land since Çelebi had passed through 150 years before. The landscape was fruitful and bustling, but travel was hard and the roads, deteriorated since the time of Ali Pasha, were little more than trails. Arghyro Kastro is in fact three towns: and no place could have been more beautifully contrived for the perpetuation of the family feuds which long disturbed its harmony. Rival houses placed at the opposing edges of the same ravines could brave each other s anger: and while their inmates were distant only a space of a few yards in appearance, a real hours descent and climb separated two seats of hereditary squabble but after the inevitable Ali had seized on the town, the separate communities ceased to differ, and it was thenceforward reduced to the level of his other widely scattered dependencies. The houses in the singular place have a most independent air; scattered here and three, standing on crags and precipices, or on little isolated levels or platforms of ground, each adorned with whitewash and arabesque painting, which gives the whole building (itself pretty in form) the most pleasing character of colour and finish. During the later part of the 19 th century, Gjirokastra was at the forefront of efforts to promote a sense of Albanian national identity. In 1880 the Assembly of Gjirokastra championed the cause for self-government and resistance to Ottoman rule. In 1908, Gjirokastra s first Albanian language school, named Liria, was opened in the city followed by a series of patriotic clubs and societies. The building recently restored still exists on top of an isolated hill near the bazaar, and a monument was erected to commemorate the beginning of literacy in southern Albania. Çerciz Topulli, born in 1880, was the son of a prominent local family and later became the leader of a band of freedom fighters during a period of considerable unrest in the Ottoman Empire. In 1908, his band assassinated the Bimbash, the Turkish commander in the city, which was followed by the famous battle at Mashkullore from which Topulli managed to escape. When Albanian independence was declared in 1912 he took up the cause of defending the borders of the new state and was killed in northern Albania during the First World War. A statue, sculpted by Odise Paskali, was erected for him in front of the Municipal Office in 1934, and his body was reinterred in Gjirokastra in

31 During the early 20 th century, when the borders of modern Albania were being defined, Gjirokastra was a disputed territory. In the course of the Balkan Wars, Albania declared independence in 1912, which was accepted by the European powers in London a year later. Still, for a few months in 1914 the Gjirokastra region formed part of the Autonomous Republic of Epirus under General Zographos, who agitated for union with Greece. Only after the First World War, the Entente powers (Britain, France and Russia) persuaded Greece to drop its claim to this majority ethnic Albanian area. The present border was ratified internationally in During King Zog s reign ( ), Gjirokastra established itself as one of the most important cultural and economic centres in the country, though it was also famous for the large prison constructed in the castle at this time. The city was taken by the Italians in 1939 provoking the formation of a guerrilla-style resistance movement; known as the Partisans they were opposed to the Italian and later German occupation. In the final years of the war Gjirokastra s rulers changed several times between Greeks, Italians and Germans before much of the region was liberated in 1944 by the Partisans under their Gjirokastra-born leader, Enver Hoxha. Gjirokastra became the base for the liberation of the rest of the country in November It was through British bombing and German shelling that the city suffered its first major destruction. The years under communism saw extensive industrialisation. In 1961, Gjirokastra was declared a Museum City by the communist regime in an effort to restore and conserve the unique cultural heritage of the town. A large workforce was assembled to maintain the old quarters. At the same time, a new socialist town was built at the foot of the historic town which soon took over many of the urban functions of Gjirokastra. Its new apartment blocks, with modern amenities, attracted many people away from the historic town. 31

32 When the regime fell in March 1992, Gjirokastra s economy was already in rapid decline. To achieve full employment, the communists had assigned far more people to work in the already outdated and inefficient industrial complexes than were actually required, and the subsequent collapse of communism resulted in the loss of thousands of jobs. There was much civil unrest, the National Armaments Museum was looted, and the enormous statue of Enver Hoxha that had dominated the old town was pulled down brought about further unrest with the collapse of the pyramid financial schemes that resulted in the loss of many people s life savings. A significant part of the Bazaar was burned and damaged, and the town became violent and lawless. The crisis triggered mass emigration, and the abandonment of many of the historic buildings that the state could no longer afford to maintain. The collapse of public services in the rural areas after 1997 brought thousands of internal emigrants to Gjirokastra. They were looking for housing in the lower new town and triggered an unprecedented, unplanned and largely uncontrolled construction boom. As a result, Gjirokastra today is a split town where most of the economic life happens in the new town while the historic city suffers from widespread emigration and decline. 32

33 The Historic Town Natural Setting The city lies at the foot of the Mali i Gjerë Mountain Range, on rugged terrain of narrow valleys, deep ravines and a few, small gentle slopes. Stone from nearby mountains is the main building material of the town. On this terrain, full of contrasts, rises a steep hillock, on which the castle, the ancient part of the city and its center, has been built. Its commanding position over the open city quarters has always played a unparalleled role in the general view of the city, while it began to loose its function as a defense construction around the second half of the 19 th century. The Ottoman town The layout of the historic town of Gjirokastra is distinctly Ottoman, and remains so today. It was not built on the river plain, as one would expect in a Western European town, but on the mountain, in order to save agricultural land. Secondly, its main components are the castle which served as both the palace of the ruler and a military fortification the bazaar as the area for crafts and commerce the religious buildings (churches, mosques and tekke) the residential quarters. Gjirokastra did not have urban squares as meeting grounds for the population, nor did it have a city hall for their representation: the only building embodying rule and administration was the castle, and the only social spaces were the religious complexes. A central square around which the main social institutions were placed ruler, church and city hall is 33

34 34 lacking. The residential areas were strictly separated from the bazaar: there were no residences in the bazaar, and neither were there commercial spaces in the residential areas. In architecture, this distinction can be seen between the dense two-storey wall-to-wall constructions in the bazaar and the solitary residences of the Gjirokastra families which give the city its unique appearance. Some stretches of road in the Old Bazaar, Hazmurat and Varosh Quarters represent the transitions between the two spheres.

35 A change of this functional division came only with the advent of the Western European model of state and society through King Zog and later the communists. A series of essential public buildings, such as the city hall, the cultural center, the post office, sports grounds, a hotel and apartment blocks, and a big square were built in the areas between the bazaar and the residential quarters, and schools and kindergardens were established within the residential areas. With the beginning of private business after 1991, small shops started to spring up in the residential areas for the first time, indicating the further transformation of Gjirokastra from an Ottoman town to a Western European one. The Castle The castle is undoubtedly the most impressive building in the city. Archaeologists believe that the site has been inhabited since the Iron Age in the 8 th 7 th centuries BC. The first fortifications - stone-block built walls - were probably erected from the 5 th century BC during the time when Epirus was a battle-ground between Illyrian tribes, Macedonians and Roman forces. A much larger fortress occupying an area of 2.5 hectares was built on the eastern end of the ridge overlooking the Drino valley by the Despotate of Epirus, under Byzantine auspices in the 12 th and 13 th centuries. 35

36 After the Ottoman conquest in the early 15 th century, the castle was progressively enlarged and improved. Extensions were built throughout the Ottoman period as the castle grew south-westward down the ridge. The Turkish traveller, Evliya Çelebi has left us interesting information on the castle from the middle of the 17th century. By describing it exactly during the first phase of its final expansion, he reports that, besides the military functions and the structures used for defensive intensions, there were also residences, huge cisterns and a mosque. It may be assumed that, at that time, the castle looked like a village encircled by a protecting wall, much like the castle of Berat still looks today, but with additional military structures. The Castle of Gjirokastra as we see it today is mainly the work of Ali Pasha. From 1811, he embarked on a substantial building programme, adding the clock tower at the northern end, a great number of underground storehouses and the fortifications at the southern end to fully enclose the area occupied by the castle. Ali Pasha relocated the families who lived within the fortified surrounding walls and reserved the castle entirely for his residence and military purposes. 36

37 In addition, Ali Pasha built an aqueduct to bring drinking water from a spring under Mount Sopoti to fill the massive water cisterns that lie in the central block of the castle, a distance of about ten kilometres. The stone aqueduct was depicted by the famous British painter Edward Lear who had done extensive travelling in the region. In a gorge above the Manalat Quarter, a small section still stands, known locally as Ali Pasha s Bridge or Manalat Bridge. Since the days of Ali Pasha, the fortunes of the castle have slowly declined. What was left of the aqueduct was torn down in 1932, and the stones were used to construct a prison in the heart of the fortress that remained in consecutive use for 30 years by King Zog, the Italian and German fascists, and the Albanian communists. There are three main entrances to the castle in the west, north and east - and two secondary ones. The huge East (or Vezir s) Gate was one of the principal gates to the castle leading down and to the south. It is said that Ali Pasha used to enter through this gate whenever he arrived from his capital Ioannina. Its fine stonework includes denticulate mouldings, and the remains of a second storey included the vault, 37

38 doors, stairs and chimney breasts. A number of internal spaces in the castle had second or third floors serving as residences for the castle s officials and its garrison. Just south of the East Gate, the wall can be seen that was the original exterior limit of the castle before Ali Pasha s extension. Behind a narrow gap, the silhouetted line of a vaulted roof indicates a former religious building, possibly a basilica. Immediately behind that is a dervish turbe, or tomb, which contains the remains of two Fathers, Baba Sulltan and Baba Kapllan, holy men from the 16 th -17 th century who lived and worked in Gjirokastra. The turbe is possibly of the Sa di Order of Sufi Islam to which Ali Pasha is said to have been affiliated, and by extending the castle he managed to include the turbe within its protecting walls. Continuing southwest, it is possible to navigate through a series of tunnels and massive vaults that extend to the very tip of the castle. These substructures and the fortifications above were constructed by Ali Pasha after They form the foundations of the ramparts above and also served as storehouses and guardrooms. From the west and east gate, a system of vaulted triple galleries, the socalled Great Gallery, extends north eastwards. It is lined with artillery pieces that were either abandoned by or captured from the Italian and German occupation forces during World War II. Italian guns, with a few exceptions, occupy the right side of the gallery, while the German artillery lines the left side. At the end of the gallery, on the left, is a small Italian 38

39 tank. Adjacent is a copy of the massive statue of the Partisan Hero by Odise Paskali, who also made the sculpture of Çerciz Topulli in the main square. Originally opened in 1971, the National Armaments Museum, located in what was once part of the prison, was built with Italian support on the top of the biggest tower in the castle. On display are Albanian arms used during the independence struggles of 1912 and 1920, as well as arms used by Albanian Partisans, and trophies from World War II. There is also a small selection of Albanian socialist realist paintings throughout the museum, the remains of a much larger collection which has since been removed. Recently, a new Museum of Gjirokastra has been opened in an adjacent part of the castle. It gives an overview of the history of the town and region for the first time, and portrays some of its most important personalities. On exhibition are, among others, objects from recent excavations in Hadrianopolis, arms from the Ottoman times, and characteristic utensils from the communist period. Entrance to the prison is gained through a set of open steel doors in the first gallery of the National Armaments Museum. Designed by the Italians, the prison was built by King Zog s regime and was used from It was 39

40 taken over by Italian and German occupation forces during the Second World War, then by the communist regime in 1944, and finally closed in The small part of the prison that is accessible to visitors was developed as a museum by the communist regime in the 1970s following the model of revolutionary jails in the Soviet Union and elsewhere. At the far end of the cellblock, adjacent to a torture and execution chamber, is an impressive display commemorating the young girl partisans, Bule Naipi and Persefoni Kokëdhima, who were executed in the prison. The display case contains the girls clothing and the rope that is purported to be the one used for their hanging by the Nazis in At the far end of the corridor, through the locked steel bars to the right, the rest of the prison and the punishment cells can be seen. The collection of antique cannons nearby is the remains of the original Ottoman fortress guns, and many of them date to Ali Pasha s time. This collection is a typical one, ranging from two to twelve pounder guns, many of which are naval weapons, removed from ships. The remains of a United States Air Force training plane, a two-seat Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star, is the airplane which was forced to land at Rinas Airport, near Tirana in December 1957, after developing technical problems. The pilot was returned to the United States a short time later but the plane was retained by the Albanian authorities. This proud trophy 40

41 of the Cold War, which the communist regime maintained was a spy plane, was brought to the castle in A series of cathedral-sized cisterns were built under the castle ramparts by Ali Pasha and were supplied from the west by the aqueduct. The northern end of the castle is dominated by the clock tower which was erected by Ali Pasha. The Ottomans had a rich culture of clock making, and from the 17 th century onwards they built clock towers right across their Empire. The square tower of the Gjirokastra clock is a typical example of Ottoman clocks. Below the clock tower is a large vaulted bastion, which was once the site of a battery of cannons. The embrasures dominate both the town and the road approaching the main castle gates. Nearby, down a stone staircase, is the rectangular powder store, carefully isolated from the surrounding ground surface by a vaulted passage. The path that leads to the north gate was specially stepped for caravans of pack animals, who would have formed the main means of transport when the castle was built. The Bazaar Life in Gjirokastra has long been centered around the medieval castle, with much of the population living inside its stout walls. In pre-ottoman times, the population would have relied on trade, while some served the feudal lords, the Zenebishi clan, who controlled the region and used the castle as their base. In 1419, the Ottomans consolidated their conquests 41

42 in the region and made Gjirokastra the capital of the new Albanian sanjak (province). The growing administration and supporting garrison provided the stimulus for the town to expand outside the castle walls. Initially it was concentrated on the ridge outside the northern castle gate, an area still known as the Pazar i Vjetër (Old Bazaar). By the 1580s the town had more than 400 residences, and Gjirokastra had become a trading centre to complement its administrative importance. In the 17 th century, Memi Pasha, the Ottoman governor, planned and built a new commercial centre for Gjirokastra along the western slope of the hill, the Pazar i Ri, (New Bazaar, referred to hereafter simply as the Bazaar). It extends from a central nexus, the so-called neck of the bazaar (qafa e pazarit) along five streets which connect it with the residential neighbourhoods in all directions, and included a mosque built especially to serve the craftsmen of the bazaar. The neck is still very much the center of the historic town. When people from the surrounding rural areas arrived in Gjirokastra for trade, shopping or administrative matters, they had their special han or inn where they would stay. The Hani Zagoria (Zagoria Inn) on Hazmurat Street is the last remaining example of such an inn. The peasants would ride up through the ravine and leave their livestock directly by the inn. As in the livestock market, the bazaar was full of small traders specializing in artisanal crafts blacksmiths, leatherworkers, tailors, embroiders, cobblers etc. The leatherworkers, saddlers and tanners were largely Muslim, while the fur trade, metalwork and silver-smith crafts were practiced by Christian families. 42

43 The bazaar was almost completely destroyed by fire, and then rebuilt in the 1750s. After another devastating fire in the 19 th century it was again reconstructed. Its roads, keeping the old axes, were broadened, and the houses in the bazaar today were built during that time. At its heyday in the early 20 th century, the Gjirokastra bazaar had about 410 workshops and was a crafts center for all of Southern Albania. The sloping terrain accounts for the construction of the houses in descending blocks. Their almost uniform architecture and the widespread use of carved stones prove the overall reconstruction of the entire bazaar in one single period, from Typically the two-storey premises have a shop or workshop below and storage space above. Not only is the bazaar characterized by its homogenous architecture, but the same style also prevailed in the rest of the Gjirokastra residential houses at the time. This integrated the bazaar well into the overall outlook of the town. The bazaar of Gjirokastra is a rare example in the whole of the Balkans of an ensemble of original buildings from the second half of the 19th century which has maintained their original function to this day. The bazaar displays cobblestone pavements with extraordinary designs. Most of the cobblestone streets in Gjirokastra are paved with a mix of black shale and pink and white limestone (the pink ones are stained via an iron oxidation process). After having suffered 43

44 major destruction during World War II, the city was rebuilt under Enver Hoxha. In the following years, one hundred craftsmen were continuously employed by the state for the restoration and maintenance works needed to preserve the historic buildings. During the period of civil unrest in , the bazaar suffered major damage again and was deserted. Today many of its shops still remain empty, but with the inscription of Gjirokastra onto the World Heritage List in 2005 and the subsequent increase in tourism, a slow but steady process of revitalization began and received a new dynamic through the establishment of an artisan shop in Since then, several new workshops and galleries have opened up and the sounds of the bazaar have returned. Iso-Polyphonic Singing Gjirokastra is one of the most well-known centers of iso-polyphonic singing. Up until twenty years ago, this ancient tradition, deeply linked to the Albanian national identity in Southern Albania, was a part of daily life in the many cafes of the bazaar and in the more than 600 family houses of the town. Rendered mainly by male singers, the music traditionally accompanies a wide range of social events, such as weddings, funerals, harvest feasts and religious celebrations. It is always featured in the well-known Gjirokastra Folk Festival, the biggest regular cultural event of the nation. The festival takes place every four years and is organized as a nationwide contest from the local qualifyings up to the final national competition. 44

45 Religious Buildings As all of Albania, Gjirokastra was originally Christian, and the Church of the Cross in nearby Labova is said to have been founded by Emperor Justinian as early as the early 6 th century. In 1515, after almost 100 years of Ottoman rule, there were still 12,257 Christian families in the Gjirokastra district compared to just 53 Muslim households. Most Albanians converted to Islam in order to avoid their oldest son being conscripted to Istanbul to receive a religious (and often military) education. Albania today is also the global center for the Sufi traditions of Islam which are collectively called Bektashism in present-day Albania although the Bektashi are only one of four dervish orders in the country, in addition to the Halveti, Rifa i and Sa di. All four of them have been present in Gjirokastra. The spread of Sufism in Albania started in Gjirokastra, and it is particulary strong in the south of the country. The Sufis collectively moved to Albania first when the Janissaries were abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826, and again when Turkey became a laicistic state and the dervish orders were prohibited under Ataturk. It is estimated that one third of all Albanian Muslims today are followers of Bektashism, especially the intelligentsia, and many of its leaders were at the forefront of the Albanian national movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Religious life in Albania was suppressed after the communists took over in Thousands of priests and nuns, imams and babas lost their lives or had to flee the country. When Albania formally declared itself an atheist state in 1967, all religious buildings were closed or destroyed. Religious activities were again allowed after the collapse of communism, and today four confessions are officially recognized in Albania: catholic and protestant Chistianity, (Sunni) Islam and Bektashism. St. Sotira Church St. Sotira is located at the northeast end of the castle, in the Old Bazaar Quarter. It was built in 1784 and is of typical Orthodox design - rectangular in shape and built on an east-west axis. The church is also called the Old Metropolitan, as it was once the seat of the local Orthodox bishop. 45

46 St. Sotira is a basilica type church with three naves. The interior area is composed of narthex, exonarthex and altar. The wider main nave and both narrower side naves are covered by cylindrical arches. In the part of the altar, there are three apses. A belfry was added later to the entrance of the church. Saint Sotira s domed ceiling has an icon of Christ Pantocrator, the allruling Christ, looking down from heaven upon the assembled congregation, hearing their prayers and reminding them of his omnipresence. Just inside the church and to the right is the metamorphosis, a hand-carved stand holding two icons that symbolises the divine transformation of Christ. The ornately carved iconostasis dates from the late 18 th century. All of the small icons along the top tier are original, as are the two icons on either side of the central, or royal, door on the lower tier. All of the remaining icons along the lower tier are replacements, as is the cross at the centre top of the iconostasis. The originals were stolen during the communist years. The interior of the church was heavily damaged during communism, and the original wall paintings were destroyed. Framed icons now cover the walls, many of them recently painted by local artists. Some of the objects hanging from the steel bars, called censers, were rescued from other churches during the period of communist destruction. The Bazaar Mosque The bazaar mosque is the only remaining mosque of the 15 that existed in Gjirokastra. No one knows why this particular mosque was spared. After 1967, the building, with its high domed ceiling, was used to train circus acrobats. Since the end of the communist regime, the original purpose of the mosque has been reinstated. The mosque was part of Memi Pasha s original 17 th century plan for the Bazaar. It was destroyed by a fire in the 18 th century, and was rebuilt around along with the rest of the Bazaar. The mosque was 46

47 deliberately designed to extend over the original street front, creating a small parade of enclosed shops that were rented out to provide funds for the maintenance of the mosque. To this day, the Muslim community is the biggest owner of houses in the bazaar. On the west side of the building, at street level, is a small octagonal building that is used for the ritual washing before the faithful attend prayers inside the mosque. The front doors of the mosque have carved Arabic inscriptions: the one on the right invokes Allah; the one on the left the Prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam. The rooms inside are simple in decor and furnishings, as has always been the case for mosques in Gjirokastra. In the corner, to the right of the main entrance, is the access to the minaret tower. There are 99 steps to reach the top, each symbolising the names of God as given in the Qur an. The tower was built with stones that each have a hole drilled through the centre. Once they were stacked in place and the holes aligned, molten lead was poured through the stones to help seat and consolidate the blocks. There are remnants of smaller mosques in other parts of the city. In comparison with the mosques in other Albanian cities, those of Gjirokastra do not have particular characteristics. What distinguishes Gjirokastra mosques is their small size as well as their poor decoration, especially on the exterior. The Gjirokastra mosques are typically monochrome. Just as the bazaar, they merge fully with the architecture of the city, from which they have taken many elements, both in their general appearance and in their architectonic details. The Meçite Mosque, Seven Fountains and the Hamam The complex of a mosque, a hamam and seven fountains at the bottom of a ravine, known as the Seven Fountains, has been the social center of a neighbourhood called Meçites and one of the few open public spaces of Gjirokastra. The fountains were built into the foundations of the Meçite mosque in the 17 th century. The remains of the minaret tower are immediately to the right of the fountain. The mosque, known for its 47

48 finely decorated ceiling, was once reached by the stairway built over the fountains. It was destroyed in 1967 during the Albanian antireligious campaign, and the location has since lost its social function. The abundance of water at this spot is exceptional for Gjirokastra and may have been the original reason to establish a site for religious worship there. All of the seven fountains are still in existence, and the building of the central fountain is recorded in a beautiful Ottoman inscription: It has been constructed with a pool so as to be of great use. Beginning from its base, to gain many prayers The mosque shall be celebrated, so shall its founder be. The one who built the pool shall be happy From all believers, to this pool and to its builder Since Muin Arslan 1 is the naib 2 and owner of the word. For me today, tomorrow for you, (even) prophets have passed away. With kindness, with pure sincerity, grant proper prayer to all. 1 This must be the name of the founder. 2 Naib is a substitute judge (Ott. Tr.) The Hamam (Turkish bath) is the only construction of this type in Gjirokastra. It was already in use when Evliya Çelebi visited the town in 1672 and is one of the very few hamams to have survived in Albania. The baths of Meçite were built in two phases. The first phase built three rooms, two for bathing with a washtub and one for steam baths. The second phase added a dressing room. 48

49 The Tekke Dating to the 17 th century or before, the Tuff Hill Tekke, at the opposite edge of the town, was another major center for the Bektashi Sufi Order. The remains of seven turbe can be seen. The principal turbe, on the very top of the hill, contains the graves of three important dervishes. The large complex of the Baba Zallit Tekke, located between Gjirokastra and Lazarat, was founded in 1780 by Asim Baba, a holy man who is said to have stemmed from the house of the Prophet. It was from here that Bektashism spread through Albania. Baba Zallit has been the most important Tekke in Gjirokastra and was of particular significance in the 19 th century. Its gate is flanked by turbes with conical roofs, and it had a rich library that was destroyed by the communists in One of the dervishs of the Tekke was Baba Rexhebi who fled Albania from the communists and founded the first Bektashi Tekke in the United States. Baba Hasan Dede founded a Tekke of the Rifa i Order in Gjirokastra. According to Evliya Çelebi his tomb was one of the foremost pilgrimage sites in Gjirokastra. There are also references to the presence of the Sa di Order in Gjirokastra to which Ali Pasha Tepelena appears to have been connected. 49

50 The Residential Quarters The extreme topography of the local area has made the city quarters stand, more or less, as separate units. However, they are not so separated from each other as to disrupt the unique picture of the city. The quarters of Old Bazaar, Pllakë and Hazmurat, built on two almost parallel ridges, constitute the most characteristic and picturesque ensembles of Gjirokastra houses. Their compactness, successful adaptation to the terrain, and the diversity of their views make these quarters remarkable. The great settlements of the Palorto and Manalat Quarters, built on steep hill slopes, have a different composition, highlighting the block-like volume of their buildings. The ensembles of both parts of the Dunavat Quarter, 50

51 masterfully linked to the terrain, are of a freer composition and their buildings more individualized, making the whole picture more colourful. The Cfakë Quarter gives a more open and rural impression. It is impossible to overlook the whole of Gjirokastra at one glance; here and there the town hides and other monumental buildings are revealed. One of the secrets of the town is that many of its most impressive buildings can be seen only from the opposing hillside. Once you are near the houses or standing in front of them, it is almost impossible to see the whole structure, which is hidden behind high walls and lush gardens. The Gjirokastra house History of Development Gjirokastra s great glory lies in its fortified tower houses. Known as kullë (Turkish for tower), they were the sign of its wealth and regional status from the 17 th century until national independence. Gjirokastra s status under the Ottoman Empire as an administrative center allowed for the construction of the kullë houses and the cultivation of generations of skilled craftsmen to carry out the work. There are around 600 of these buildings in all historic quarters of the town. 51

52 General Characteristics The large family residences set the tone for the city; they are its main composing element and its most outstanding architectural achievement. With a relatively great number of variations, the Gjirokastra house occupies a special position, constituting a different type of Albanian urban residential house. It has particular characteristics in its composition, planimetries and volume, and special constructive elements: 1. A Gjirokastra house is designed with respect to its height, and its different versions are based on the number of floors or storeys. 2. A Gjirokastra house is characterised by its defensive functions which are manifest in their small ground space relative to their height, embrasures and small windows on the lower floors. 3. There is an organic relationship between the houses and the rocky terrain. The location of the houses on steep slopes allowed increased area in the houses by adding two more floors compared to the traditional Ottoman house which had two floors. The Albanian way of life of the time has also played its part in this architecture: the need to display power and wealth, or defensive structures for the clans that inevitably came to fight each other, the requirement to build secure structures to house livestock in the winter and store water during the long dry months of summer, and the need for spaces that reflected the culture of Gjirokastra people; their hospitality and even prosperity in an often harsh land. Almost all of the houses include big water cisterns as Gjirokastra has no surface water, with the exception of a few springs which run dry during the summer. One of the important features of the Gjirokastra house is its defensive character, which has changed over time. It was on the rise until the end of the flourishing period of the Gjirokastra house and then began to decline and disappeared completely by the end of the 19 th century. Notable security features were the heavy stone walls, small barred windows on the lower floors and firearm embrasures. Apart from their defensive functions, some of these features are rather symbolic since the steep hillside to the back of the building would have made them vulnerable to attack from above. Construction The construction of the Gjirokastra house brings together two distinct parts: While the heavy stone construction of the lower floors has its roots in the rural Albanian tower house (kullë), the top floor, constructed of wood and plaster, followed urban Ottoman tradition in both engineering and design. However, the typical Ottoman design feature of dividing the house into male and female quarters is not present in a Gjirokastra house. The stone walls, up to one meter thick at their base, are bound with limestone mortar with an in-built band of wooden beams to give the house flexibility in the event of an earthquake. Notable in many houses are the 52

53 tall arches (kemer), sometimes columned, which serve both the stability and the aesthetic appeal of the house. Usually the kemer would be capped by an open roofed space or terrace (kameriye) which connects to other rooms and provides open air space in between. The top floor, which needed to be cool for use in the summer months, is a timber framework with walls of wooden lath covered with a special plaster compound of aged lime, goat hair, egg whites and fine sand, mixed with straw. The Roof and Chimneys The grey limestone slab roofs with their characteristic chimneys are a defining feature of the Gjirokastra house and an essential element to the town s urban landscape. This type of roof is omnipresent throughout the historic region of Epirus, but not typically in Albania or in the rest of Greece, where it can be found only in individual villages. It is therefore assumed that it is an autochthonous element of Gjirokastra s architecture, pre-dating Ottoman influence. The strong local oak could carry the enormous weight of the stone slabs. It was used for the construction of the trusses, highly complex structure in themselves. The limestone for the roof is taken from the nearby mountain and is skillfully split into slabs only a few cm thick the thinner the slab, the better the craftsmanship. It takes special expertise to place the slabs on the trusses as to create a watertight roof. No mortar is used; only the weight of the slabs hold them in place. But this means that the roofs need constant surveillance. Especially before and after the storms and torrential rains of the winter, they must be replaced in their proper position in order to keep the water from soaking into the wooden beams which support them. The wealth of the homeowner could be recognized by the number of chimneys on his roof. Since each fireplace in the house had its own chimney, the number of chimneys would tell the number of heated rooms in the house. Some rich houses are said to have had up to ten chimneys, contributing to the impressive roof landscape of Gjirokastra. In order to prevent rain water from running down and washing away the plastered walls, the roofs had to protrude. Again, this required supporting the roof with wooden beams from 53

54 outside in order to carry its massive weight. All these elements; the slabs, the chimneys and support beams, built according to the necessities of the natural environment, result in the typical, harmonic and highly aesthetic appearance of the roofs of Gjirokastra. The Courtyards and Gardens Almost every Gjirokastra house is surrounded by one or more courtyards and/or gardens; protected from the outside world by massive gates and high walls that add to the monumental character of the house. The arch over the door would usually contain a small relief in Ottoman Turk language telling the year of construction according to the Muslim calendar, sometimes flanked by other artwork.these open spaces ensured a certain amount of distance between the houses and later allowed extensions to the original buildings as needed. The gardens provided essential herbs and fruit for daily consumption for the inhabitants, as they still do today. During the harsh times of communist rule, when private possession of productive means was prohibited, the secluded urban gardens often allowed for the secret keeping of a chicken or even a sheep or goat. The urban gardens are an important, but mostly overlooked, feature of Gjirokastra s urban fabric, both in terms of its design and economy. Urban gardens are a rare feature in European towns, and those of Gjirokastra are yet another aspect to the singularity of this town. Variations With the planimetric and volume composition as the basic criterion for its classification, the Gjirokastra house appears in three variations: the perpendicular variation, the one-wing variation and the two-wing variation. There are also special cases that are not included in any of these variations, but which still possess the characteristics of the Gjirokastra house. 54

55 The perpendicular variation is the simplest one, and at the same time is the basis for the future development of the Gjirokastra house. With respect to its composition, it represents a prismatic block with a rectangular basis, with two or three storeys. The first two storeys are linked by outer stairs. This house is remarkable for its closed character and resembles, to some degree, the north Albanian kullë. Its simple and compact composition, its characteristic composition in regard to terrain, as well as its height all make it especially appropriate for defensive purposes. Among the few examples of the perpendicular variations left worth mentioning are the Dhrami, Stavri, Roqi and Çeribashi Houses. 55

56 56 The one-wing variation constitutes the most common kind of the Gjirokastra house. It has been well mastered by the builders who, preserving its main compositional principles, have in many cases added new creative elements to it. Outstanding examples of this variation are the Kikino (1825), Beqiri (1827), Resaj (1831), Toro and Ҫene Houses, while the Ҫabej House represents an exception due to its later extension.

57 The two-wing variation, maybe the most characteristic of the Gjirokastra house, is the tallest. In both the one-wing and two-wing variations the Gjirokastra house appears finer and more complete. Available data has shown that their formation dates back to the beginning of the 18 th century or even earlier. Some of the finest examples of the two-winged variation are the Zekate (1812), Skendulate (1823), Belaj, Babaramo (late 18th cent.) and Cico (1821) Houses. The Angonate (1881) and Babameto (1885/1887) Houses, and to some extent, the Fico House (1908), which represent late developments to this variation when it lost its defensive traits. 57

58 The period from may be considered the classical period of the Gjirokastra house. During that time a great number of large buildings with outstanding architectural value were erected and most clearly exhibit the essential characteristics. A Gjirokastra house is remarkable for its height (vertical orientation). Rooms all connect to the main passageway and often with each other. The arrangement of the Gjirokastra house is very free. But what gives the planimetry and volume of the Gjirokastra house diversity and height is the semifloor (mezzanine) between the ground and upper floor. Since the formation of the three-storied perpendicular variation, the Gjirokastra house established a functional differentiation between the floors that remained one of its important features until the 1880s. The loss of this characteristic is linked to the use of the ground floor beginning to be used as living space when the needs for defense, keeping animals and storing large quantities of agricultural goods in winter became obsolete. Interior Immovable furniture such as elevated wooden platforms (dhipato), built-in cupboards and trunks (musander), organically linked with the construction, constitute an important feature of the Gjirokastra house, just as of the 58

59 Albanian house in general. This makes for spacious rooms. Besides low sofas, nothing intrudes into the volume of the rooms. Small ornate niches in the walls play an important role. In the houses with one or two wings which have internal staircases and landings on the upper floors, new spaces called divan were created which connected the wings of the houses and the individual rooms. The divan on the top floor was usually a considerably large built-in balcony constructed entirely of wood and with extensive carved decoration of walls, doors and roof-supporting posts. Unlike its interior, with its intricate architecture, the exterior of the Gjirokastra house is much less ornate. Because of its orientation only the façade and, in some cases, side walls were decorated. Outside there are few architectural details; special elements are usually mingled together. 59

60 In some more developed examples, the outside walls, and in some cases, the side walls of rooms are decorated with mural paintings. In general, the outside wall of the oda is decorated with paintings in baroque style, and its side walls present two sitting lions facing each other, an homage to Venetian culture. Decoration Carved, pained and gilded woodwork was very popular in the Ottoman Empire. The painted frescoes on the walls of the main reception rooms were also a local adaptation of Ottoman tradition. In the 18 th century a decorative style known as the Tulip Period was introduced which emphasized floral scenes and elaborate garlands. This developed into a more flamboyant style by the early 19 th century, sometimes called the Ottoman Rococo. Flowers, fruits and other vegetation form the main theme. Many are symbolic, such as pomegranates for good health and wheat sheaves for wealth. 60

61 The Zekate House The house of the Zeko family is undoubtedly one of the most representative residences of Gjirokastra. Both its prominent location where it can fully be seen from almost everywhere in the town, and that it includes all the characteristic features of the Gjirokastra house in an almost ideal form, make it an iconic example of this type of building. This particularly grand fortified tower house was constructed in with twin towers and a great double-arched façade. The two arches, kemer, were erected for structural reasons but demonstrate the extraordinary grandeur of the four-storey building. The owner and builder of the house was Beqir Zeko, a general administrator in Ali Pasha s government, and the house reflects his status within the ruling elite of the town. Zeko shared the house with his sons and their families. The wealth of the Zeko family and the grandeur of the house were underlined by its large compound, three gates and a double courtyard, as well as a chimney for each of its many rooms. The original access to the building was from a small and steep road, the Rruga Reshat Zani, and the disused gate at the head of this path was its main guest entrance. The new entrance gate is at the southern end of the 61

62 compound. Initially you enter the courtyard of the small neighbouring building, which used to be the servants quarters (odajashta, external rooms ), and is where the patriarch of the family, Rushdie Zeko, now lives. Passing a second gate you enter the inner courtyard of the Zekate House. The Zekate House itself is unoccupied. The family had been expropriated under the communist struggle against feudalism, and was forced to leave the house which became the Ethnographical Museum of Gjirokastra for some time. After the collapse of communism, the Zeko family was reinstated to its property but was too poor now to take care of it or make it inhabitable according to modern standards. Since its restoration in 2004 it has been open for visitors. The imposing front door leads into a lower hallway, the nëndivan. The ground floor was uninhabited but nevertheless offers a small space for the reception of occasional visitors who would not be invited to the upper floors. To the right is the head of a large water cistern lined with plaster. A house with a cistern big enough to retain water in the autumn, after the dry summer months, was considered well-equipped. The first autumn rains would be permitted to clean off the roof and thereafter the extensive guttering would direct the fresh supplies into the cistern below. To the left of the front door is a large vaulted storeroom (kube) for storing and milling cereals, as well as keeping agricultural equipment. The staircase that leads up the centre of the building is paved with grey slates outlined in a red paint that protects the soluble lime cement from being washed away by frequent cleaning. The first floor, actually a mezzanine floor, contains the lower divan or reception chamber and has a small raised section in one corner where important persons sat. There is one separate room on this level that was used by the women for household purposes. Situated directly over the cistern, it was cool and had a dedicated under-floor storage space for food. Cooking facilities as well as a secret weapon storage were also located here. The second floor contains two main rooms (oda) leading off from the central divan. Similar in layout, they were used by the two branches of the family as winter rooms, as their stone walls made them easier to heat. Each has an adjacent toilet and bathroom (hamam), which were heated by the fires in the main rooms. Low couches (sofa) ran around three sides of the 62

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64 rooms, and storage cupboards are built into the walls. At one end is the musandra, a large cupboard, which stored mattresses and other bedding during the day. The musandra conceals a short staircase leading to a small gallery (dhipato) overlooking each room. Women and children retired to these galleries during formal meetings when the men of the house received guests. The third floor contains the grandest reception room as well as two smaller rooms. The third floor divan is especially grand with a wide çardak (pergola) which offers a spectacular view over the town and valley below. The head of the family and his chief guests would have sat on the raised dais to drink coffee and smoke. The two smaller rooms are summer chambers following the model of the rooms of the floor below. The back parts of both the third and fourth floor were kitchens for the winter and summer respectively. The principal room on this floor was intended to be a multipurpose reception room. It is large and elaborately decorated and was used for the most important social occasions, such as weddings. The design and decoration of the house is thought to be the work of the master architect and decorator, Petro Korçari, who was a favourite of Ali Pasha. 64

65 An elaborate gallery and musandra covers the entrance door and adjacent toilet. The ceiling is very finely carved and gilded. The windows, bar the lunettes with their multicoloured glass, are unglazed to allow a cooling draft. Other Houses The Angonate House, built in a very dominant location overlooking the main part of the bazaar, is the largest in the town. It was constructed around 1881 for two families and has an obvious symmetric composition. It has a front building which is not connected to the residence, forming an architectural ensemble of outstanding value around a courtyard. The rooms are now far more specialized than in the earlier buildings where function was more multi-purpose, though the principal reception spaces remain distinguished from the other rooms. The multiplicity of windows shows that the defensive function is now less of a consideration in the basic design and that life within the house takes on a new importance. The Babameto House belonged to a wider complex of the Halveti Dervish Order which gave this quarter its original name, Tekke. In addition to the Babameto House, it encompassed the entire area of today s open-air auditorium and the Medresa. The complex included the Tekke Mosque as well as two fountains. Evliya Ҫelebi noted: Around the courtyard of the Tekke Mosque there are the cells of a Halveti Tekke, and on one side are the graves of many saints and notables. The entire religious complex was destroyed during the communist period; the Babameto House is the only structure left. It was named after its first owner Baba Meto, the holyman who was the keeper of the Tekke at his time. This fine building is a double house: one of the rare cases in Gjirokastra where two houses are attached together under the same roof, and was intentionally built this way. This design reflects the growing influence of 65

66 Western European ways of life at the end of the 19 th century, tending to smaller and more separated family units. It also lacks any defensive features. There are two different inscriptions with dates on the main gates. One has the date of 1885 and the other This house lacks a water cistern, which is a normal feature of a Gjirokastra house. Here it was unnecessary because of the numerous wells in this part of town; the two of which were in the courtyard. The Babaramo House is a building of important typological values and belongs to the two-wing variation. Despite the changes made over time, it is not difficult to date the construction of this house to the end of the18th century. The Beqiri House represents one of the best achievements of the onewing house. The original composition is well preserved although many original architectural elements have been lost. The residence must have been built at the beginning of the 19th century. 66

67 The Dhrami House, an example of a perpendicular building, is a construction of great typological interest. As it is shown by its unusual composition of four storeys, having initially one room on each floor, the function of this residence was to guard and defend the Palorto Quarter. Later on, the ambiences of the second and third floor were divided into two rooms in order to make space for the stairs, which at first were external. Gjirokastra s Ethnographic Museum stands on the site of the childhood home of Enver Hoxha, Albania s communist dictator from 1944 to The museum building was constructed in 1966, after the original house was destroyed by fire. It is modelled on a traditional Gjirokastra house with many classic cultural elements. From 1966 to 1991 the building served as the National Liberation War Museum. In 1991 the exhibits from the previous Ethnographic Museum were moved into this space. The Fico House is of special interest because, built in 1908, it allows us to trace the evolution of the Gjirokastra house up to the beginning of the 20 th century, when this type of house was no longer built. The architectural treatment of the interior and exterior presents new developments: the interior becoming simpler, the exterior being enriched with new elements. The front has two arched gates, and this house is the only one in Gjirokastra that has elaborate wooden ornaments of the pediment and window frames. 67

68 The Kikino House represents one of the best achievements of the onewing Gjirokastra house. It was built in 1825 and is a three-floor building, with a compact composition, around a joining main core that ends with a çardak (garret) on the upper floor. The kameriye has been well preserved, and the mural paintings depicting floral and everyday-life motifs are probably the finest and most elaborate to be found in Gjirokastra today. The Resaj House (1831) is another extraordinary example of the onewing Gjirokastra house. The residence fits perfectly into the rocky terrain on which it is located. To have such finesse, the floors were built unevenly, with two, three or four building blocks being used without touching the structure of the residence. 68

69 The Skëndulate House represents one of the most distinguished achievements of the Gjirokastra house, built in 1823, and has been preserved in its original state. It used to have 46 chimneys, indicating the wealth of the Skënduli family. The main guest room (oda), in particular, is distinguished by its decorated ceiling and wooden poles, just as the many other wooden decorations throughout this house give it an unrepeatable value. The great number of loopholes and the sophisticated locks of the main doors bear witness of its defensive function. The Stavri House is an example of the original version of the Gjirokastra house, exhibiting a unique composition with half a floor. On the inhabited floor there are two living rooms and two supporting function rooms. The Toro House is a very rare example of a Gjirokastra house with the enclosure of the staircase inside the building. The closure of the stair space creates three ambiences characteristic of the Gjirokastra house. 69

70 In the Laboviti House, built in neoclassical style, Vasil Laboviti, a medical doctor who had studied in Austria, invited a Nazi commander to dinner, during which he persuaded him not to execute 70 Gjirokastra men in For that he was accused of cooperation with the enemy by the communists. Ismail Kadare used this story for one of his novels, Wrong Dinner (2008). Management The historic town of Gjirokastra is legally protected by the Decree on the Museum City (1961, 2007), the Law on Cultural Heritage (2003) and its status as a World Heritage Site (2005). While the Decree and the World Heritage status protect the entire area of the historic town, the Law on Cultural Heritage places, in addition, more than 600 individual buildings under protection as cultural monuments of 1 st and 2 nd category. 70

71 In reality however, the town continues to be plagued by a number of problems, some of them due to Gjirokastra s unfortunate history of the past 70 years, and some due to gaps in the existing legal framework. As a result, the integrity of the Historic City of Gjirokastra is under acute threat. The UNESCO World Heritage regime, which is based on the complex rules of international law and diplomacy, has not been well-popularized among the local people, especially among the private house owners. It is not generally known that the world heritage status can be lost, and there is no shared idea of terms such as authenticity and integrity : the dramatic changes to be observed in the historic city are not often recognized to be a problem. The contemporary and the modern are widely considered to be the more Beautiful. In addition, research suggests that about 40% of the inhabitants of historic buildings do not know that their house is a cultural monument. During the period of anarchy in 1997, most of the city s archives and cadastres were burned. For the vast majority of historic houses in Gjirokastra this means that their original owners have no documents to prove that the houses were theirs before the communists expropriated them and made the houses property of the state. Recently, efforts have been made by both the government and civil society to register the houses again. Until about 1998, most of the intellectual elite of Gjirokastra had emigrated due to the unstable political and economic situation. Among them were most of the home owners. They have built new lives abroad and are not dependent on their homes in Gjirokastra, but the general attitude is not sell them because of a strong sense of property. In contrast to the customary law of inheritance in Albania, where only the youngest son inherited the house of his parents, a more just law on inheritance was introduced under King Zog which stipulates that heritage is shared equally among all children. This has led to houses now having up to 70 owners who all have to agree on any change to be made. In addition, unrealistic ideas prevail about the value of the houses, all of which require tens or hundreds of thousands of Euros for their restoration and modernization. Since in all likelihood one of the heirs will be against restoring or 71

72 selling the house, the market for the houses is developing very slowly, and only about 10-30% of the houses may be inhabited. Presently the state has no legal basis to intervene, and the many houses, which stand completely or almost empty, are exposed to decay. The present regulations that govern the restoration and modernization of privately owned cultural monument buildings, coupled with uncompromising political confrontations and a general mentality of non-cooperation, make it extremely difficult to obtain permission for the modernization of historic buildings. As a result, most inhabitants have to live in unacceptable conditions. In their frustration, they resort to restoring the homes on their own and as a result of their lack of expertise; historical values are getting lost on a day-to-day basis. Finally, detailed decrees and guidelines essential for the implementation of existing laws are, as of yet, lacking, and responsibilities are not always clear. In the absence of key strategic policy documents such as a comprehensive management and development plan, a tourism development plan, and guidelines for the design of buildings, signage and public spaces, officials in charge have few clear-cut legal documents upon which to rely to make transparent and verifiable decisions. Furthermore, there is very little experience in Albania with the revitalization 72

73 and modernization of historic buildings, or in the protection of urban landscapes and public spaces. As a result, there is a creeping, uncontrolled modernization of the inhabited houses and public infrastructure which threatens to destroy the Ottoman character of the town. These interventions are visible for everyone, but sadly there is no intervention to stop them. Lately, UNESCO has become alerted to the situation in Gjirokastra. This is a sign of hope that the international community, the Albanian government and the local municipality and people may work together to save one of the most unique and impressive urban ensembles in Europe. * This text draws extensively from the following sources: Felicity Booth and Elenita Roshi (ed.): Gjirokastra. The Essential Guide. Tirana/Norwich: Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organization 2009 Emin Riza: Gjirokastra. Museum City. Tirana: 8 Nentori Publishing House 1978 Museum City of Gjirokastra. World Heritage Nomination File 569bis. unesco.org/en/list/569/documents/ 73

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75 IOANNINA The City of Arts and Letters Introduction, History, City Monuments by Varvara N. Papadopoulou Management Issues by Vasilis Birbos Introduction The city of Ioannina is the capital of the Region of Epirus and one of the most important commercial, cultural and intellectual centres in northwestern Greece. Ioannina is located 420 kilometers northwest of Athens and 260 kilometers southwest of Thessaloniki. The city lies at an altitude of 480 meters above sea level, on the western shore of Lake Pamvotis. Lake Pamvotis and the surrounding basin are defined by mountain ranges; on the north side, the most imposing is Mt. Mitsikeli. In the past, a smaller lake, known as Lake Lapsista, was situated to the north of the basin, but it dried up in the middle of the 20 th century. The main characteristics of the city are: the Lake, one of the most important ecosystems in the region; the rich flora and fauna; the uniqueness of the climate, which combines Mediterranean and mid-european elements, providing hot and dry summers and cold and rainy winters. The city of Ioannina is the seat of the Region of Epirus. At a distance of 6 kilometres from the city centre, one can find the University campus (one of the most modern campuses in Europe), while the University Hospital and the G. Hatzikosta General Hospital serve the needs not only of the inhabitants of Ioannina but also of the entire northwestern Greece. 75

76 Today, the city is one of the most important commercial, cultural and intellectual centres of northwestern Greece. The fact that the majority of the urban population, which is approximately , in addition to students, is concentrated in the city resulted in its expansion mainly to the south. The majority of it residents work in the tertiary and secondary sector, i.e. in commerce, public health, education, public administration, as well as in the sectors of manufacturing and construction. Only a small number are involved in agriculture, animal husbandry and timber trade. The city of Ioannina is widely known as the city of silversmiths. Ever since the Byzantine era it has been the most important Greek centre of production and selling of silver craft items. The Archaeological Museum, the Byzantine Museum and the Municipal Museum have a rich collection of exhibits, covering the long history of the area. They also host important cultural events. The cultural events hosted throughout the year make Ioannina a vibrant city to live in. Events such as the Epirotika, held in the summer months, include exhibitions, concerts and theatrical performances. The events organized by the Cultural Centre of the Municipality of Ioannina, the commercial exhibition Epirus, held in the beginning of the summer, and others, attract not only local residents but also visitors from the wider region of Epirus. History Prehistoric era ancient times Traces of human existence in the area can be dated back to the Upper Paleolithic era, according to the findings that were excavated in the Cave of Kastritsa, to the south of the city. A large number of settlements can be found in the area, dating from the Late Copper and Early Bronze Ages to the Roman era. This has been attributed to the geomorphology of the region and the existence of a rich ecosystem that was hospitable to the permanent establishment of small agricultural and farming settlements. 76

77 After the 5 th century BC, the residential areas began to flourish as new fortified settlements were created. According to sources, the Molossians inhabited the area in antiquity. According to Greek mythology, the Molossians were the descendants of Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. Towards the end of the 5 th century BC or the beginning of the 4 th century BC, the Molossian League was established as a coalition between the Molossians and other tribes of Epirus, under the leadership of the Molossians. The seat of their state was the ancient city of Passaron, located on the hill of Megalo Gardiki, to the north of Ioannina. In recent years excavations carried out on the hill of Kastritsa, to the south of the basin, revealed another important ancient city, dating back to the time of ancient Passaron. It has been determined to be the walled city of ancient Tekmona. Recent excavations inside the castle revealed an ancient fortification, on top of which the Byzantine fortification was built. The excavations also brought to light coins, pottery and building remains of an ancient city, the name of which, however, remains unknown. Not far from the city, in the middle of the narrow valley at the foot of Mt. Olytsika (ancient Tomaros), lies the well-known Sanctuary of Dodona. According to historians, the Sanctuary of Dodona was probably founded in the Early Copper Age ( BC) and was devoted to the Greek god Zeus. However, there is evidence that an oracle pre-existed on the same spot. The oracle was devoted to the goddess of euphoria and fertility, the Great Goddess, whose worship was particularly common in the eastern Mediterranean area. The old goddess was called Dione, and she and Zeus were the divine couple of the sanctuary of Dodona. Their symbol and their home was the sacred oak (or beech) tree, which was depicted on the silver coins of the Epirote League, dating back to the end of the 3 rd century BC. The priestesses interpreted the rustling of the oak leaves or the flying of the doves to determine the will of the gods. The Roman occupation of the region in 168 BC, despite the destruction of the Epirote cities and the captivity of their residents, did not bring about any radical changes in the residential landscape, and various archaeological findings testify to the continuation of habitation during this period. Byzantine period There are only a few archaeological findings from the area dating back to the early Byzantine centuries, while there are none at all for the city and the castle. The formerly-held view that the city was founded by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in the 6 th century AD is not accepted today. In 879, the name Ioannina was used for the first time, although the etymology of the word is still disputed. In 1082, Anna Komnene mentions in her book Alexiad that the citadel was built by the Norman conqueror Bohemund Guiscard, who had captured the city and had settled down for a short while, in his attempt to overtake territories of the 77

78 Byzantine empire. According to historical sources, the city was surrounded by a strong fortification, which was repaired by Bohemund. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1204, Michael I Komnenos Doukas ruled Epirus from , where he established a decentralized Byzantine state, the wellknown Despotate of Epirus, whose capital was Arta. He brought many noble Byzantine families (such as the Philanthropinoi, the Strategopouloi and the Melissinoi), who had fled Constantinople after the fall. In the meantime, he restored and reinforced the existing fortification. By the end of the 13 th century, the city of Ioannina became an important centre of the region, with strong walls, churches and mansions. At that time, the islet of Lake Pamvotis became an important monastic community. Members of the noble Byzantine families, like the Philanthropinoi and the Strategopouloi, founded the famous monasteries devoted to Aghios Nikolaos. Historical sources from the same period describe the castle as impregnable. In the beginning of the 14 th century, Ioannina attained its independence from Arta and came under the rule of the Byzantine Emperor, in accordance with the wishes of its inhabitants. In exchange, in 1319 and 1321, the Emperor Andronikos II Paleologos issued two chrysobulls (imperial decrees with special golden seals) granting a wide range of privileges to the inhabitants. Around 1338, the region was repeatedly besieged by Albanians while in 1346 Ioannina fell to the Serbs, who had already possessed many territories of the Central and Northern Greece. From 1367 to 1384, Thomas Preljubovic, an important personality, famous for his attacks against the Albanians was appointed the new governor of the city. After his death, ruler of Ioannina was Esau Buondelmonti of the Florentine Acciaiuoli family, and later, Carlo I Tocco, duke of Cephalonia. Post Byzantine - Ottoman period In 1430, the city of Ioannina surrendered to the Ottomans, after a series of negotiations. By order of the Sultan Murad II, better known as the Rule of Sinan Pasha, all previous privileges were preserved and the inhabitants were granted tax exemptions, free trade, and immunity from imprisonment and from the seizure and indoctrination of their children. The Ottomans were not allowed to live in the castle, where mainly Christians and Jews lived. Following the Ottoman occupation, the city expanded mainly outside the castle walls, where various Muslim neighbourhoods were created. The 16 th century was characterized 78

79 by a demographic boom. Two Ottoman documents, written in 1564 and in 1579, provide relevant information about the city, with a population of 7,000 inhabitants. In 1611, the unsuccessful revolt of Dionysios the Philosopher, bishop of Trikala and Stagoi, led to many changes in the city as the Christians were driven away from the castle. From that time onwards, only Turks and Jews were allowed to settle inside the castle. The poorer Christians settled in the tanners neighbourhoods by the lakeside, while the wealthier ones settled in the northwestern districts. Many, however, were forced to emigrate to central and northern Europe. After 1611, the city neighbourhoods increased in number, and the Muslim population grew as a result of continued Islamization. Despite the unsuccessful revolt of Dionysios, and while the region was under the Ottoman presence, the city and the surrounding area enjoyed economic and cultural prosperity in the 17 th and the 18 th century. The city became an important intellectual centre, thanks to the famous schools that were established with the permission of the Ottoman authorities. The Epiphanios School (later renamed to Maroutsios School), the Great School founded by the merchant Emmanouil Giouma (1677), the Kaplanios School and the Zosimaia School were among the most important educational establishments, where notable men of letters taught. Ever since the 17 th century, Ioannina was the centre through which the books published in the Greek printing presses of Venice were channeled into Greece. Many of the Greek-owned printing presses were established by immigrants from Ioannina, like Nikolaos Glykis, Nikolaos Sarros and Dimitrios Theodosiou. The free circulation of books in the area and the operation of the schools in the city made Ioannina one of the birthplaces of the Greek Enlightenment in the 18 th and 19 th century. Ali Pasha ( ) In 1788, Ali Pasha was officially appointed governor of Ioannina. Ali became an important yet controversial political personality of that era. He appointed many distinguished Greeks to high places and he favoured local merchants and craftsmen. During this period, Ioannina was an important centre of handicrafts and trade in the Balkans. The merchants and the craftsmen were organized in guilds (esnafia or roufetia); they maintained commercial activities in the Danubian Principalities, in Western Europe, in Russia and in Egypt. Their trade consisted of leather goods, fabrics and silverware. In Ali s time, the city became a focal point of European attraction through the foundation of consulates, international trade and through the diplomatic relations he maintained. A demographic boom ensued, and the city expanded with the creation of new districts, and continued to do so until the 1960s. Ali s rich warfare and his intention to gain independence from the Sublime Porte resulted in building many fortifications in the wider region. In Ioannina, a solid castle upon the Byzantine remnants was completed in In July 1820, the Sultan declared Ali Pasha as an apostate, and in August the city was besieged by Turkish troops; the siege lasted one 79

80 and a half years. In 1822, Ali Pasha was killed on the island of the lake of Ioannina. With the siege of the city and the military campaign, the thriving economy and people s lives were engulfed by turmoil and many inhabitants had to seek refuge in nearby regions while a large part of the city was burned down. Second half of the 19th century - today The reforms (Tanzimat) of the Sultan Abdul Mejid in 1856, which called for respect of the rights and the property of every subject in Ottoman territory irrespective of religion, were not a great help to the local economy, although they did reinforce the Greek bourgeoisie. The decline of commerce brought about the decline of the guilds. In 1869, by order of Rashim Pasha, Vali (commander) of Epirus, a fire was set in the marketplace, with the intention of rebuilding it. Rashim Pasha invited French architects to design and implement the new street plan. Many buildings were reconstructed, the marketplace was expanded to the North, and a second commercial centre was constructed to the South, in the Kaloutsiani area. During the First Balkan War ( ) and as part of the general uprising for the liberation of many Greek territories, the Greek armed forces surrounded the city of Ioannina. On February 21, 1913, the Turkish governor Eshat Pasha signed the surrender of the city and Ioannina and the surrounding area were annexed to the Greek state. After the liberation, there was slow development, which was interrupted during World War II, during which an important part of the Jewish community was executed in the German concentration camps. In the decades that followed the War, there was a spectacular demographic and economic boom. The rich intellectual tradition of the city is continued today by the University of Ioannina, which was founded in 1964 and other schools as well. The city hosts also many local important cultural activities. 80

81 City Monuments The Castle History The castle of Ioannina is built at the southeast end of the city, atop a small rocky peninsula that juts out onto Lake Pamvotis. Its modern layout dates from the Late Ottoman period (end 18 th - beginning 19 th century). However, it has incorporated parts of previous fortifications, dating back to the Ancient and Byzantine period. Recent excavation work brought to light ancient archaeological ruins. These elements corroborate the existence of a walled settlement, dating back to the Late Classical and the Hellenistic era. Architectural remains from the same period come to light every so often inside the castle, covering its entire area. However, up to now, the research conducted has not been able to identify this settlement with any of the ancient Epirote cities that are mentioned in historical sources. The castle continued to be the core of the city in Byzantine times. In 1082, the castle fell into the hands of the Normans, and their leader Bohemund reinforced the wall of the existing fortification and erected a second citadel on the elevated northeastern part of the castle. The remains of the citadel, which have been preserved up to the present day, include the circular tower, which was later incorporated into the Seraglio of Ali Pasha, as well as the ruins of the second northeastern tower. In the Late Byzantine period (13 th -15 th century), the city of Ioannina experienced unique growth and constituted an important administrative and economic centre. This allowed the founder of the Despotate of Epirus, Michael I Komnenos Doukas ( ) to settle certain refugee families from Constantinople, such as the Philanthropinoi and the Strategopouloi, in the castle and, at the same time, to reinforce the walls of the Byzantine city. The interventions on the fortification continued throughout the 13 th and the 14 th century. A large part of that fortification is still preserved in the castle, although it is not easy to recognize it. The Byzantine fortification of this particular period consisted of a sturdy enclosing wall, whose area largely corresponds with that of the wall enclosing the modern castle. According to the written sources, this 81

82 circumferential wall was protected by a wide water ditch on the land side. At intervals, there were towers. One of the most famous is Thomas Tower, which is located to the south of the modern main gate. Initially, it was believed to be a tower built by the Serb governor of the city, Thomas Preljubovic (c. 1380). Recent excavation works carried out by the Archaeological Service have brought to light certain findings that verify the fact that it is the western gate of the castle s Byzantine fortification. The two rocky hills on the northeastern and the southeastern side of the castle were transformed into two citadels. The rulers palace was built in the northeastern citadel while the Metropolitan Church of the Archangel Michael and the Church of Christ Pantocrator were built in the southeastern citadel; the houses of the lords were also built here, according to certain views. After the surrender of the city to the Ottomans in 1430, the walls were probably restored. Interventions by Ali Pasha ( ) on the surrounding wall and the citadels radically changed the form of the castle. These interventions were completed in 1815, and their purpose was to make the castle a powerful and inaccessible fortress, equal to the power of Ali Pasha. During Ali s interventions, only the well-preserved parts of the pre-existing late-byzantine fortification were maintained. A strong new wall was constructed outside the pre-existing wall and the gap between the walls was covered with arches, and arcades were formed there. Other arched constructions were also erected on the lower level. On the upper level, a wide circumferential walk was formed, which was used for military purposes and had many cannon holes. Part of the fortification was also the wide ditch, dating from the Byzantine period, which flooded with lake waters, giving the impression that the castle was built on an islet, at its southwestern and western side. The southeastern citadel, called Its Kalé, is the work of Ali Pasha entirely. There he had erected his palace, the Seraglio, and other 82

83 buildings for his guard. In recent years, the Archaeological Service has carried out a great deal of restorative and reinforcement work on the defensive walls in order to enhance the reputation of the castle and its preserved monuments. The monuments of the castle The Northeastern citadel The Aslan Pasha Mosque was erected at the beginning of the 17th century (probably in 1618) on the site of the Byzantine Church of St. John, according to tradition. It is a square building with a semi-circular dome, arcades around the north, the west and the south side and an enclosed portico, nowadays. Inside the main room, stands the Mihrab, a niche in the wall used for praying, adorned with plaster relief decorations. The Municipal Museum has been housed in the Mosque since It hosts three collections representing the three communities that lived in the castle throughout its history: the Greek, the Jewish and the Muslim. The exhibits come from donations by notable local families and date from the 18 th century up to the 20 th century. The turbe (mausoleum) is located to the east of the Aslan Pasha Mosque. According to tradition, this burial monument belonged to Aslan Pasha and was constructed at the beginning of the 17 th century. The medrese is located to the southwest of the Aslan Pasha Mosque. It is probably a contemporary building (beginning of the 17th century). It used to operate as a higher religious institution, where scholars stayed. It is a large, elongated building with 12 domed dormitories and a large central teaching room with a wooden roof. The Southeastern citadel (Its Kalé) Nowadays, the southeastern citadel is an archaeological site open to the public. It extends over two levels, where many Ottoman monuments are preserved, the majority of which have been restored by the Archaeological Service. 83

84 The Ali Pasha Seraglio (Palace) It was erected on the elevated western part of Its Kalé, with a view of the lake. Many European travelers to Greece in the 19 th century described the Seraglio as a noble and impressive building with ornate and lavish decorations. After the fall of Ali Pasha (1822), the Seraglio continued to operate as an administrative centre until 1870, when it was burned down entirely. Nowadays, the ruins of the western side of the Seraglio are preserved together with certain outbuildings. The Military Hospital was erected on the remains of the Seraglio s main building several years later. In 1958, the Royal Pavilion was erected on this site and ever since 1995, the Byzantine Museum of Ioannina. The seven halls of the Byzantine Museum have on exhibit important findings from excavations, dating from the Early Christian period to the beginning of the 20th century, such as coins, icons and pottery from the wider region of Epirus. A prominent place among the Museum s collection has been occupied by the Byzantine sculptures from churches in the area of Thesprotia, two Byzantine ceramic icons from Arta, etc. Among the exhibits there are hand-written gospels and books printed in Venice by Greek-owned printing houses. All these exhibits familiarize the visitor with the history and the development of the city of Ioannina through the centuries. This building probably belonged to the wider complex of the Seraglio of Ali Pasha. According to oral tradition, this was the Treasury. The building 84

85 was restored by the Archaeological Service between 1989 and From that time on it has housed a permanent collection of silverware, as the silversmith s art was highly developed in Ioannina, especially during the Late Byzantine period. The Fetihe Mosque dominates the highest point of the southeastern citadel. Its present form dates from the end of the 18 th century. According to tradition, the Mosque was built on the site of the pre-existing Byzantine Church of Archangel Michael. The only relics from the Byzantine church are two 13 th -century marble columns from the iconostasis that were built into the niche (mihrab). The dome and the mihrab are decorated with wall-paintings depicting plants and geometrical designs, as well as Arabian caracters. Today the Fetihe Mosque hosts an exhibition about the city of Ioannina during the Ottoman period and the versatile personality of Ali Pasha. Close to the Mosque lies the tomb of Ali Pasha and one of his wives. The headless body of Ali Pasha was buried here, right after his murder. The existing ornate railing that covers the grave is a replica of the original forged railing, which disappeared around

86 Monuments inside the castle At the western side of the castle, on Ioustinianou street, lies the Jewish Synagogue. According to oral tradition, the first Synagogue appeared in the 9 th century. Its present form is a reconstruction of It is a large building with two archways. Echal is the marble niche on the eastern wall, where the holly Torah scrolls are kept. The women s quarters stand on the northern side. A high stone wall surrounds a yard. The Jewish Community of Ioannina has played an active role in the city s life ever since the Byzantine era. During the Ottoman period, as non-muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire, they gained certain commercial privileges and the right to exercise their faith. During World War II, the majority of the local Jewish Community perished. Built only a few meters from the main gate of the northwestern citadel, the Turkish Library was probably part of the complex of the Aslan Pasha Mosque. It dates to the 17 th century. The characterization of the building as a library is attributed to the large number of manuscripts and books that were allegedly kept there. The Soufari Seraglio (Soufari Palace) was probably built at the beginning of the 19 th century. It is a large, two-storey building, the ground floor of which is separated into four elongated quarters that are divided by pillars and arcades. The building used to house the Ali Pasha Cavalry School. Nowadays, it houses the General State Archives - Department of Ioannina, after the extensive restoration and fixative works that have taken place on the building. The Hamam (Turkish baths) are located to the south of the Library and they are one of the earliest preserved Ottoman monuments in Ioannina (beginning of the 17 th century).the building has undergone many subsequent interventions; it has a large square room that was used as a 86

87 vestry for the bathers, an intermediate elongated arched space, the main bathing room, the arched cistern, etc. The main room has the shape of a cross, with small square domed niches. The Christian monuments of the city The Metropolitan Church of the city is dedicated to St. Athanasios. According to tradition, a Byzantine church existed on the same spot, while certain manuscripts from 1619 and 1664 refer to it as the katholikon of a monastery. The church we see today was erected between 1831 and 1832 in the form of a three-aisled basilica. A multi-sided arch looms outward from the eastern exterior side of the sanctuary, which has three sections inside and three Communion tables, dedicated to the old patron saint of the city, the Archangel Michael, and to St. John the Evangelist. In the interior, the church is decorated with wall paintings. According to a related inscription, the frescoes were made in 1835 by the Ioannina hagiographers Theodosios and Konstantinos. The iconostasis is a characteristic example of Epirote wood carving of the 19 th century. It is an exceptional work of art, made by renowned craftsmen from the village of Tournovo (today called Gorgopotamos) in Konitsa. A series of valuable portable icons are kept in the Metropolitan Church, and the silver cover of a gospel, made by the craftsman Athanasios Tzimouris in the second half of the 19 th century. 87

88 On the north side of the Metropolitan Church, a chapel was built to house the grave of the patron saint of Ioannina, St George the Neomartyr, who was hanged in 1838 by the Turks. The Church of Archimandrio, dedicated to the Dormition of the Virgin Mary, used to be the katholikon of the Byzantine Monastery of the Archimandrio, which is first mentioned in literary sources in Since the end of the 15 th century, the Archimandrio has served as a monastery for women. Throughout the Ottoman occupation until the second half of the 19 th century, the monastery had been well known for its charity work. The present form of the church is the result of the reconstruction works that took place from 1858 to It is a large, three-aisled, domed basilica with three arches on the east side and a narthex on the west side. The marble iconostasis separates the nave from the sanctuary. The wall paintings of the sanctuary were done in 1885, while the remaining part of the church was painted in The church has a lot of icons, the oldest of which dates to the beginning of the 13 th century. The majority of the exhibited icons date to the 17 th and the 18 th century. To the southeast looms the monumental tower-like campanile (steeple), built in

89 The Church of Hagia Aikaterini (St. Catherine) is situated a little further up from the Archimandrio Church and it is a dependency of the Holy Monastery of St. Catherine s of Mount Sinai. The initial church was built in 1771 and was renovated in Between 1872 and 1875, the church was fully renovated through the financial support of the benefactors Alexios and Angeliki Papazoglou. The wall paintings in the sanctuary were painted by the Epirote painter Alexandros Damiris. One of the most valuable portable icons that are kept in the church depicts St. Catherine, a work from 1770 painted by Ioannis Athanasiou, a well-known artist from the village of Kapesovo in Zagori. The Church of Panaghia Perivleptos, dedicated to Zoodochos Pigi (Source of Life), used to be the katholikon of a monastery founded in 1647 by Epiphanios Igoumenos ( ), a rich merchant from Venice. The contemporary church is a structure built c. 1838, according to an inscription above the southern entrance. One of the main donors for its construction was Nikolas Zosimas ( ), another notable Epirote benefactor. The Church of St. Marina is located in one of the oldest districts of Ioannina called Kaloutsiani. According to tradition, the Church of St. Marina was initially built in 1791 but it was burned down by the Sultan s troops in The contemporary church was erected in 1852 with the financial support of the Zosimas brothers. It is a three-aisled basilica with a wooden roof and three polygonal arches to the east. A colonnaded stoa surrounds part of the northern, the southern and the western wall. The older wall paintings were made in Church of Aghios Nikolaos Agoras (St. Nicholas in the Marketplace). The existence of the church has been testified ever since the 17 th century. The present form, however, is attributed to the reconstruction works that were carried out from 1837 to 1842, thanks to the financial support of the Zosimas brothers and George Hadjikonstas. The portable icons of Russian art, a Gospel and other items that are kept in the church were donated by George Hadjikonstas, a well-known benefactor. 89

90 The Muslim monuments of the city Up until the first half of the 20 th century, there were many Muslim mosques preserved in the city of Ioannina. Many of these, however, are known only from historical sources, city plans and old photographs. Nowadays, only 2 mosques are preserved outside the castle area. The Kaloutsiani Mosque, meaning fountain of blood (tsesme = fountain and kan = blood), is located in a similarly-named district of the city. It was probably built in the middle of the 18 th century by Hadji Mehmet Pasha, Vali (commander) of Ioannina, on the site of a medjit (an Ottoman religious building without a minaret). The niche (Mihrab), adorned with plaster relief decorations, and the original wood-carved pulpit (Minbar) are preserved in fairly good condition inside the spacious prayer room. The dome is painted with various decorative themes. The Veli Pasha Mosque or Tsiekur Mosque is situated to the south of the castle, at the southeastern edge of the Litharitsia hill. According to tradition, the Mosque was built by Veli Pasha at the end of the 18 th century in order to replace an older Turkish mosque that had been built on the ruins of the pre-existing Byzantine Church of St. Stephan, which was demolished at the beginning of the 17 th century. Together with the medrese (seminary), built on the northern side, they formed a religious complex that used to be near the seraglio that Ali Pasha had built for his son Veli Pasha. The Litharitsia rampart is located on a low hill with the same name, not far from the castle, to the southwest. This impressive structure, an example of late Ottoman fortification architecture, was erected by Ali Pasha at the beginning of the 19 th century. The rampart was used for protective purposes as a first line of defense in front of the castle. It is built in a rectangular shape with many different levels. The upper part used to be furnished with cannons, while the lower part had emplacements. On the top of the hill, Ali Pasha had built a large seraglio in 1805, based on designs by the architect J. Freywald. According to testimonies, Ali Pasha had also built palaces nearby for his sons Muhtar and Velis. These buildings, however, were completely destroyed by a fire. In 1983, the Archaeological 90

91 Service carried out scattered restorations on the fortification walls. Today, a café-restaurant is situated in the interior domed halls of the once fortified rampart, and a park extends over the top of the hill. The clock tower is one of the most famous monuments of the city of Ioannina, noteworthy for its well-proportioned, near-perfect construction. It was built in 1905 by Osman Pasha, commander of Epirus, in honour of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. It is a tower-like construction supported by four high arches, on top of which there is a balcony with a stone rail. On the four sides of the base there are four small fountains (no longer in operation today), while above the arches there are inscribed plates bearing Ottoman symbols. The clock tower is the work of the architect P. Melirrytos ( ), to whom many public buildings of Ioannina are attributed, such as the Post Office, the Zosimaia Library and the old Zosimaia School. This type of construction combines neoclassical elements with an eastern style. The clock tower was originally built in the centre of the lower Square (to the north of the modern square, at the junction with Averoff Street). An unfortunate incident, however, that took place in 1918 during the celebrations for the victory of the allied forces in World War I, when a heavy fire gun caused extended damage to the clock, resulted in its transfer to another location. Buildings of architectural and historical interest There are many buildings of architectural and historical interest in the city of Ioannina. The Misios mansion, built in 1844 to house the Misios family, was donated to the Ministry of Culture, and today it houses one of its services. It is an interesting building with an interior courtyard, a characteristic example of Ioannina architecture. The Central Post Office was built in 1905 based on designs by the architect P. Melirrytos. At first, the building housed the Middle Girls School, founded by Osman Pasha, commander of the city. 91

92 The City Hall was designed by the architect A. Zachos to house the main branch of the National Bank of Greece. The impressive façade has a three-arched propylon on the ground floor and a balcony with densely-placed arches on the floor above. The building facades have ceramic tiles adorned with a lovely, colourful, plant-shaped design. The Old Zosimaia School today operates as a high school. The name is attributed to the Zosimas brothers (wealthy citizens and benefactors who had immigrated to Russia), because they had donated money for the foundation of a school in Ioannina. In his will, in 1841, N. Zosimas had expressed his desire to found a new school at his expense, the construction of which was carried out in The building was designed by the architect P. Melirrytos, and its façade is an imitation of the facade of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens in an effort to emphasize the importance of the Zosimaia School. Museums Visitors may get a view of the history of the region and the city of Ioannina in the museums that exist not only in Ioannina but also in other cities nearby. 92 The Archaeological Museum of Ioannina is located in Litharitsia Park in the centre of the city. The Museum is housed in an interesting building that

93 was erected between 1963 and 1966, based on designs by the architect Aris Konstantinidis. The exhibits include findings from the wider region of Epirus, such as bone and stone tools excavated in the Palaeolithic sites of Kokkinopilos, Asprochaliko, Kastritsa, among others, as well as findings from the sanctuary and oracle of Dodona, from the settlement and the cemeteries of the Molossian city that was excavated in Vitsa, from the Necromanteion of Acheron, and elsewhere. Among the exhibits there are sepulchral steles, architectural remnants, inscriptions and an interesting collection of coins from various areas and periods. One of its halls is temporarily housing work by Greek artists of the 19 th and 20 th century. (Address: 25 th March Square, tel ). The Byzantine Museum is located inside the Castle, within the inner citadel, known as Its Kalé. There are finds from Byzantine cities of Epirus, such as Nikopolis and Arta, icons, coins, etc (Address: Ioannina Castle, tel , , fax ). The Municipal Museum is housed in the Aslan Pasha Mosque at the north-eastern citadel of the castle. The Mosque was in operation until Valuable traditional costumes and jewels from various areas of Epirus, silverware and ceramic pieces, as well as wood-carved furniture are among the exhibits, covering a time period from the 18th century to the 20th century. There are also interesting items representing the activities of the three communities, (Christian, Jewish, Ottoman) that lived in the city during the Turkish occupation. The collections of V. Pyrsinellas, A. Pallis, personal items belonging to the poet Lorentzos Mavilis, the guns of G. Karaiskakis, and other items are also on exhibit. (Address: Municipal Museum, Ioannina Castle, tel ). The Folk Museum was founded by the Society of Epirote Studies. It is housed in a recently renovated building on 42 Michail Anghelou Street. Objects of Epirote traditional art (textiles, woodcarvings, silverwork, etc.), ecclesiastical items, household items, ceramics and local costumes are among its most valuable collections. (Address: Folk Museum, 42 Michail Anghelou Street, tel ). The Pavlos Vrellis Wax Museum is located in the village of Bizani, at the 14 th kilometre of the Ioannina-Athens National Road. It is housed in an interesting fortress-type building, imitating a traditional Epirote mansion. The life-size wax figures represent figures from modern Greek history, divided into three thematic units: the pre-revolution period (Secret School, Society of Friends, etc.), the 1821 revolution (death of Ali Pasha), World War II (Pindos women, etc.). More than 150 wax figures, inspired by various events, are exhibited in the Museum. (tel ). The Islet The Islet of Lake Pamvotis is 0,2 km 2 in size and hosts a small settlement and seven monasteries. The settlement extends over the northern part and its existence has been verified as dating back to the Byzantine era. Today, 93

94 it is a popular tourist destination, welcoming many visitors on a daily basis, not only to see the monasteries but also to learn about its history and its connection to the death of the notorious Ali Pasha. Around the settlement, mainly close to the western and eastern shores, there are seven monasteries, the most important of which are the following: The Monastery of St. Nicholas Philanthropinoi The monastery is connected to the Byzantine family of the Philanthropinoi, one of the families from Constantinople that settled in Ioannina after The monastery flourished during the 16 th century, following extensive interventions by the abbot Ioasaf. 94

95 In addition to the katholikon, the ruins of the altar and the newly-built cells surrounded by a precinct are preserved today. The katholikon is known for the well-preserved wall paintings, some of the best preserved 16 th century paintings in Epirus. A wealth of depictions adorns the walls, distinguished for their theological messages and the fine artistic work. The wall paintings were made in three different phases. The oldest phase dates back to , while the second phase dates to The third phase dates to 1560 and is attributed to the painters George and Fragos Kontaris, known for their work on other monuments in Epirus and also in Meteora. Despite the different phases and painters, the wall paintings of the monastery form a united ensemble with a variety of scenes. Many of the depictions are characterized by their originality, like the seven wise men of Greece (Plato, Apollonius of Tyana, Solon, Aristotle, Plutarch, Thucydides and Chilon Lacedaemon). Another interesting painting is the one showing five members of the Philanthropinoi family praying before the figure of St. Nicholas. Also characteristic are the life size figures of the Saints in military attire, Christ Pantocrator with the angels on the dome, and the depiction of Doomsday with the fiery river of Hell. The Monastery of St. Nicholas Stratigopoulou or Diliou 95

96 This monastery is situated at a close distance from the Monastery of Philanthropinoi. It was founded in the 13 th century by members of the Stratigopouloi family, one of the noble Byzantine families of Constantinople that had also settled in Ioannina after 1204, thereby taking an active part in the local government. The monastery was probably renovated in the 17th century by the Dilios family, which explains the second name. The katholikon is a single-aisled, wooden-roofed church, with a semicircular apse to the east and a narthex to the western side. A series of solid covings with brick arches adorn the north and the south side of the monument. In the interior, the church is decorated with valuable wall paintings, dating to , depicting scenes from the life of Christ. The narthex is adorned with scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary. The east wall to the right and left of the entrance is adorned with the impressive scene of the Second Coming. The imposing wood-carved iconostasis in the katholikon is the work of local craftsmen, dating to the end of the 18 th century or the beginning of the 19 th century. Its icons date from the 16 th to the 19 th century (today, these icons have been replaced by copies). 96

97 The Monastery of Panaghia Eleousa (Virgin of Tenderness) Initially the monastery was dedicated to St. Nicholas and it was probably founded before the mid-16 th century. It was renamed around 1584, when the miraculous icon of Panaghia Eleousa was transferred to the monastery from the Church of St. Paraskevi. Abbot Nikiphoros was responsible for the radical restoration of the complex in the mid-18 th century. The monastery flourished in the second half of the 19 th century, after its consociation with the neighbouring Monastery of Metamorphosis (Transfiguration), where a Seminary had been founded in 1872 by permission of the Turkish authorities. The interior is adorned with paintings that have been made in different phases. The older paintings date to the 16 th century, while the newer ones date to the early 18 th century. The paintings in the newer narthex were made in 1759 by the painter Anastasios and his son from the village of Kapesovo. The iconostasis is a fine example of local wood-carving craftsmanship at the end of the 18 th century to the beginning of the 19 th century. The monastery has an exquisite collection of icons, oblations, local craft items, as well as work by famous painters of the 16 th and the 17 th century. The Monastery of Metamorphosi Sotiros (Transfiguration of Christ) The monastery is located not far from the Monastery of Eleousa and it dates to the second half of the 19th century, although according to some sources the monastery was built in the 17th century. The katholikon was painted in 1851 by Anthimos, a monk from Mount Athos. In addition to the katholikon, there is the building of the Seminary, which today is used as a library and a conference centre. 97

98 The Monastery of St. John Prodromos (St. John the Baptist) The monastery is located at the eastern side of the islet not far from the settlement. The only historical evidence concerning its foundation comes from the autobiography of Theophanis and Nektarios Apsaras, who came from a noble family, members of which held important offices in the city of Ioannina ever since the Byzantine era. The two brothers became monks at an early age and in they founded the monastery on the site of a preexisting small church. Several years later, however, they were forced to abandon the monastery and they fled to Meteora, where in 1542 they founded the well-known Monastery of Varlaam, where they stayed until their death. There is no evidence regarding the history of the Monastery of St. John the Baptist after its foundation. However, it is known that from the end of the 18 th century, the monastery was connected to certain city guilds that helped the monastery financially and funded various restoration works. The church is built in the architectural form of the cruciform church, i.e. it has two elongated chambers that intersect, forming a cross. To the west, the entrance to the katholikon goes through a small barrel-vaulted narthex, which was contemporary to the church. According to the inscription above the western entrance the interior is adorned with wall paintings from These were restored in 1824 and in 1892, according to related inscriptions. At the expense of the city guilds, the wood-carved iconostasis was constructed in 1789, incorporating some parts of an older iconostasis. Until recently, the iconostasis was adorned with valuable icons from the 16th century, but now these are stored in another area for safe-keeping. The recently renovated cells host a small museum themed around the lake, its ecosystem and the life of residents who lived near the lake. The Monastery of St. Panteleimon (St. Pantaleon) The monastery is located on the eastern side of the islet, not far from the Monastery of St. John the Baptist. According to written sources, there was a small church on the same site since the beginning of the 16 th century, dedicated to St. Panteleimon. The monastery has suffered a lot of damage through the centuries. According to the English traveller W. Leake, the church was restored by Ali Pasha, who had forced a wealthy Ioannina citizen to cover the expenses. Furthermore, the church is directly connected to Ali Pasha, as it was there that he took refuge during the last 98

99 days of the siege by the Sultan s army. Finally, he was murdered in the monastery cells in January, Today, the katholikon is a three-aisled, wooden-roofed basilica with an elevated narthex to the west and a posterior hayat to the south side. The modern form of the church dates to the 19 th century. The southern wall, however, is a remnant of an older church with wall paintings dating to different eras (from the end of 15 th or beginning of 16 th century up to the 19 th century).one of the most important icons of the church is that of St. Panteleimon, dating back to the 15 th -16 th century. Another outstanding work from the 16th century is the icon of Christ Enthroned. The majority of the icons in the iconostasis were the gift of Anastasios Melas, envoy to Russia. In addition to the katholikon, two recently renovated buildings with cells are preserved within the precinct. The north cell houses a collection of incunabula and manuscripts from all the monasteries on the islet. Ali Pasha was murdered inside the south cell. Nowadays, it hosts a small museum with items dating to the period of Ali Pasha. 99

100 Management Issues The first distinct organised urban planning intervention in the region of the historical city centre of Ioannina (apart from the human geographic and economic factors that had contributed to its formation up to the 19th century) took place in 1869, when Rashim Pasha proceeded to the squaring of the urban net and to the urban redistribution, as a result of a fire that was set deliberately to destroy a part of the city. The new town planning began immediately, according to the plans of the German chief engineer Holz, while in 1883, the Italian Bernasconi drew up the new lay out of the city. Thus, in 1870 the new market place of Ioannina was created, 100

101 which preserves its original form to a great extent up to the present day. The first Decree for the Town Plan was published in Unfortunately, this Street Plan foresaw extensive alterations of significant building complexes and arcades, since the new planning of the roads did not take into consideration the existing situation. In 1989, the Historical Centre of the city was enacted by the Presidential Decree of (GOVERNMENT GAZETTE 605/D/89), with special terms and building restrictions that had positive results on the maintenance of the Historical Centre, since: The existing Building Line was de facto observed Building and morphological restrictions and interventions were imposed Thereafter, the implementation of a special urban study for the Historical City Centre began, but it remained in the stage of topographic imprinting (in general and not for every building). The enactment of the General Urban Plan (G.U.P.), in accordance with Law 1337/83, followed while today both the G.U.P and the Regulatory Master Plan of the Ioannina basin have been elaborated and are in the process of approval in accordance with Law 2508/97, wherein the necessary measures are specified in terms of spatial and urban design planning in regions of Historical Cities Centres. The city of Ioannina, with its Historical Centre, has maintained and partly promoted its comparative advantage as an attractive lakeside city, due to the spectacular natural environment, the preservation of monuments and its traditional character, in terms of architectural morphology, and traditional land uses, however, not to the best possible way. With regard to the existing architectural building reserve, the Historical Centre boasts of entire streets where the well-preserved old houses, the ovens, the stores are kept intact. From the picturesque houses on Soutsou Street with their narrow facades crowded one next to the other, pinpointing their difference either by colour, or by a certain decorative 101

102 element, up to the proud mansions on Kountouriotou Street with the numerous rooms and the impressive entrances, where once the wealthy Jewish citizens of Ioannina used to live, to Joseph Evliya Street, the heart of today s few remaining members of the Jewish community, the bourgeois houses testify the local traditional architecture with the characteristic railings on the windows, the vivid colours, the perfect proportions and the wise symmetry. On Anexartisias Street one may still see the inns and the famous arcades, all architectural monuments full of memories and life, with small commercial stores on the ground floor and the small dwellings on the floor. However, what makes the Historical Centre of Ioannina unique is its Castle, for being continuously inhabited ever since its foundation and for the great architectural interest. The Castle is the place where all three cultures, i.e the Jewish, the Christian and the Muslim, the last one to a greater extent, left their marks. The houses inside the traditional settlement of the castle also present a unique architectural interest, not to mention the great number of monuments, like: the North-eastern citadel, the Aslan Pasha Mosque, the Turbe (mausoleum), the Medresa (seminary), the Southeastern citadel (Its Kale), the Saray of Ali Pasha, the Byzantine Museum, the Treasury, the Fetihe Mosque, the Tomb of Ali Pasha, the Synagogue, the Hamam, the Soufari Saray, the Turkish Library, etc. A negative feature is the current traffic system, which runs through the city from the south end to the north end. This model leads to traffic suffocation at the height of the densely built centre where the modern traffic lanes either narrow or extinguish completely. The characteristic example of this 102

103 problematic model is the southern access to the city where the three arteries (the one under construction) reach to the height of the Castle in order to be narrowed to one traffic lane. In addition, the lack of mild means of transport like tram railways, and in general, any environmental friendly transportation means, the lack of pedestrian zones and cycling tracks, the insufficient parking lots, in combination with the prevailing land uses, make the traffic problem to a large extent even worse not to mention the environmental pollution of the Historical Centre. In the framework of the 3rd Community Support Framework (CSF) and the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF), certain actions were taken for the elevation of the Historical Centre, such as: the European program Raphael living castles, the restoration and elevation of the Its Kale citadel, the restoration of the castle s exterior walls between , the cleaning and lighting of the castle walls, the paving of the main roads within the castle s settlement, various reformations of openair spaces and recreation areas, the elevation of commercial roads in the historical centre, the financing for the elevation of building facades, the creation of pedestrian zones, etc. With regard to the management of Historical Cities Centres, a basic element of these sustainable development policies on a European (European Spatial Development Perspective-ESDP) and international (Agenda 21) level is the new policy and design guidelines that are being implemented in the sector of intermediate cities for the sustainable development and the sustainability, like: The mild forms of communication and transportation and the minimisation of the distances between home and work. The elevation of the city s cultural heritage, its historicity, its modern artistic activity and the aesthetics of the city area as the primary parameters of the quality of life. Development of a specific urban tourism as well as hosting of congress and cultural/artistic events related with the powerful city profile on a European level in the sector of direct natural surroundings in combination with the historical and cultural heritage as a factor of European identity and international opening of the city. The intermediate cities are a basic element of the sustainable development policies, in the framework of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF), which is the framework of Interreg 103

104 programs in the long run. According to the current classification of the Large Urban Zones in the European Union in categories depending on attractiveness and consequently their priority in relevant elevation policies, the city of Ioannina belongs (Eurostat urban audit 2008) to the first category among few cities with similar place. The aforementioned general guidelines may be applied to the following specific objectives of urban planning and management of the Historical Centre of the city of Ioannina: Special Target 1: «Emphasis on elevation/preservation of image with identity, aesthetic quality and international recognition» In order to achieve this target, measures and interventions are proposed for the elevation and preservation of the particular elements that make up the identity of the Historical Centre of the city. Such elements (Land Marks) may include the historical and preserved buildings of the city (churches, mosques, synagogues, mansions, neoclassical, arcades, inns, public buildings, etc), points of historical interest, as well as streets with particular character, either in terms of building architecture, or in terms of use (commercial streets, streets with traditional crafts, recreation and walking areas etc). Special Target 2: «Elevation preservation of the Historical Centre of the city both in terms of urban and cultural reserve and as part of the city s vivid history (traditional uses and living areas)» Traditionally, the Historical Centre of the city of Ioannina was characterized by the intense presence of trade, population, mainly within the walls, and the traditional handicraft. Among the contemporary uses is that of entertainment, mainly in the form of restaurants and bars, which often take the place of commercial stores and/or residences. In order to maintain the traditional uses alive, the permanent residents of the region should have a good quality of urban environment. This quality can be ensured with the development of community areas that will facilitate the residents, the guarantee of access and parking and the low levels of noise nuisance. Nevertheless, the region of the Historical Centre is particularly attractive as a residential area with a quality of aesthetics of the structured environment. For the same reasons, the Historical Centre is an attractive tourist product and consequently it is necessary, apart from the urban protection, to maintain the traditional commercial and handicraft uses and to pinpoint them with a special labelling, with promotion programs, with the establishment of happenings and other cultural activities, as well as with the creation of tourist thematic routes. Of particular interest would be the elevation of the co-existence of the three religious communities that sealed the history of the city (Christian, Jewish, Muslim). For example, the projection of the Byzantine monuments with special-guided tours at regular intervals, the elevation of the Jewish synagogue and the promotion of the 104

105 religious ceremonies of the Jewish community, the restoration reopening of the Turkish baths (hamam), etc. Special Target 3: Commerce - Tourism The main concern is the development of the historical and the modern city centre of Ioannina to the primary commercial centre/ pole, offering quality/identity/image/urbanicity and its specialisation to a rare luxury trade and special trade in the area of fashion, recreation, decoration art, luxury foods, publications etc. It is obvious that the elevation of areas for the attraction of visitors should offer different experiences to the visitor, a fact that maximises the benefits of tourism. Thus, together with the ecological, historical, archaeological and cultural value of a certain area, its relation with today should also be elected as a result of a dynamic process that connects the past with the present and tomorrow. A characteristic example of the above is the integration of the traditional handicraft, the local cooking, the folk music, etc. in the tourist product. The traditional art of silvercraft is a material ready to be integrated and exploited while the revival of basket weaving may bring not only economic benefits but also contribute to the aims of environmental protection (restriction of the extent of reeds thicket). Special Target 4: Traffic In particular the guidelines traffic organization measures are: Reduction of traffic and parking of vehicles in the historical centre. Creation of a Tram network with a fast and often communication to and forth the nodal operational points of the city. Improvement of the existing urban means of transportation. Construction of new parking areas around the Historical Centre (underground, aboveground, ground). Obstruction of end to end movement in the Historical Centre with natural obstacles (pedestrian zones, narrow traffic lanes, etc.). 105

106 Extension of the pedestrian zones / cycling tracks network with the creation of pedestrians public areas that are used as car parking areas today. Due to the complex nature of the urban planning, the number of regulations and laws involved and the number of services and organizations involved, it would be relevant to foresee the creation of a specific organization that would be in charge of the management of the historical city center, after the elaboration of specific urban and architectural studies. This organization would organize and monitor a dedicated urban planning database while it would coordinate specific topics, such as: a) management of urban and zoning planning and specific architectural issues, b) transportation and traffic issues, and c) trade, tourism and recreation issues through the creation of management committee. This committee would have the capacity of creating and monitoring a data bank related to these issues and would support the cooperation of all the relevant actors (local government, central government, associations, etc) in order to ensure a common approach in the delimitation of the urban zoning, etc. 106

107 Sources and Recommended reading - Chantepleure, Guy: La ville assiégée Janina Octobre Mars Calman-Lévy, Paris: The Fetiyie mosque in the Castle of Ioannina. 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Ioannina: 2008 / Το Φετιχιέ Τζαμί στο Κάστρο των Ιωαννίνων. 8η Εφορεία Βυζαντινών Αρχαιοτήτων, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Ιωάννινα: Ioannina. From the Byzantine Castle to the Ottoman City. 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Ioannina: 2009 / Ιωαννίνα από την βυζαντινή καστροπολιτεία στην οθωμανική μεγαλούπολη. 8η Εφορεία Βυζαντινών Αρχαιοτήτων, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Ιωάννινα: Konstantinos, Dimitris: The Kastro of Ioannina. Ministry of Culture, Archeological Receipts Fund, Athens: Magnat Lanniée, Zélia: Memoirs of a year in Ioannina Fondation EGNATIA EPIRUS, Ioannina: Τα Βυζαντινά Μνημεία της Ηπείρου. 8η Εφορεία Βυζαντινών Αρχαιοτήτων, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Ιωάννινα: 2008 (The Byzantine Monuments of Epirus. 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Ioannina: 2008) - Μνημεία των Ιωαννίνων. Πόλη, Νησί, Λεκανοπέδιο. 8η Εφορεία Βυζαντινών Αρχαιοτήτων, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Ιωάννινα: 2009 (Monuments of Ioannina. The town, the island, the basin. 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Ioannina: 2009) - Το Κάστρο των Ιωαννίνων. 8η Εφορεία Βυζαντινών Αρχαιοτήτων, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού, Ιωάννινα: 2009 (The Castle of Ioannina. 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Ioannina: 2009) - Κανετάκης Ιωάννης: Το Κάστρο - Συμβολή στην πολεοδομική ιστορία των Ιωαννίνων, 1994 (Kanetakis Ioannis: The Castle Contribution to the urban history of Ioannina, 1994) - Κεραμιδιώτη, Ευτυχία: Ιωάννινα-Ζαγοροχώρια. Ιδανικός Ξεναγός. Εκδόσεις ΟΡΑΜΑ, Ραφήνα: (Keramidioti, Eftychia: Ioannina-Zagorochoria. Special Guide. Editions ORAMA, Rafina: 2010) - Μάργαρης, Βασίλης: Γιάννενα Πέτρινα. Και η Ήπειρος όλη μια πέτρα ναι χτισμένη. Βασίλης Μάργαρης, Ιωάννινα: 2008 (Margaris, Vassilis: Ioannina of Stone. Vassilis Margaris, Ioannina: 2008) - Παπαδοπούλου, Βαρβάρα: Τα μοναστήρια του Νησιού των Ιωαννίνων. Μονή Ελεούσας, Ιωάννινα: 2004 (Papadopoulou, Varvara: The monasteries in the Island of Ioannina. Holy Monastery of Eleousa, Ioannina: 2004) - Παπασταύρου Αναστάσιος: Ιωαννίνων Εγκώμιον - Το παρελθόν που δεν χάθηκε (Papastavrou Anastasios: Ioannina Praise The past that is not lost) - Ριζαρειών Ίδρυμα: Ιωάννινα. Ολκός/ Ριζαρειών Ίδρυμα, Αθήνα: 1996 (Rizario Fondation: Ioannina. Olkos/ Rozario Fondation, Athens: 1996) - Ρογκότη - Κυριακοπούλου Δήμητρα: Ελληνική Παραδοσιακή Αρχιτεκτονική, 1988 (Rogoti - Kyriakopoulou Demetra: Greek Traditional Architecture, 1988) - Σινίκη-Παπακώστα, Νίτσα: Παλιά Γιάννενα. Σχέδια-σχόλια. Εκδοτικός Οίκος «Μέλισσα», Αθήνα: 1986 (Siniki-Papakosta, Nitsa: Old Ioannina. Drawings-Comments. Melissa Editions, Athens: 1986) - Σινίκη-Παπακώστα, Νίτσα: Το Κάστρο των Ιωαννίνων. Σχέδια-σχόλια. Νομαρχιακή Αυτοδιοίκηση Ιωαννίνων, Ιωάννινα: 2007 (The Castle of Ioannina. Drawings-Comments. Prefecture of Ioannina, Ioannina: 2007) - Ψημένος, Στέφανος Γ.: Ανεξερεύνητη Ήπειρος. Εκδόσεις ROAD, Αθήνα: 2007 (Psimenos, Stephanos G.: Undiscovered Epirus. Road Editions, Athens: 2007) - Χαρίσης Βασίλειος: Ίδρυση Χωροταξικός ρόλος Μορφή της πρωτοβυζαντινής πόλεως, Ιωάννινα: 2003 (Charisis Vasilios: Foundation Spatial role Layout of an early Byzantine city, Ioannina : 2003) - Χατζής, Δημήτρης: Το τέλος της μικρής μας πόλης. Το Ροδακιό, Αθήνα: 2007 (Xatzis, Dimitris: The End of our Small Town. Rodakio, Athens: 2007) - Χουλιάρας, Νίκος: Ο Λούσιας. Μυθιστόρημα. Νεφέλη, Αθήνα : 1987 (Xouliaras, Nikos: Loussias. Novel. Nefeli, Athens: 1987) - Μελέτη Γενικού Πολεοδομικού Σχεδίου Ιωαννίνων, Α & Β φάση, 2005 (General Urban Plan Study of Ioannina, Α & Β phase, 2005) - Μελέτη Ρυθμιστικού Σχεδίου & Προγράμματος Προστασίας Περιβάλλοντος οικιστικού συγκροτήματος Ιωαννίνων, Α & Β φάση, 2009 (Regulatory Plan Study & Environmental Protection Program for the urban complex of Ioannina, Α & Β phase, 2009) 107

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109 PRIZREN the City of Filigree Introduction For many centuries in row and under numerous rules of kingdoms and empires, Prizren has been an important commercial, administrative and cultural center. Each and every one of these kingdoms and empires left behind rich treasures of cultural, historic and architectonic values which make Prizren today a special city and the center of culture in Kosovo. Stretched at the foot of the beautiful panoramic Sharri Mountains, and divided in two by Lumbardhi River, which in hot summer days brings endlessly the attractive coolness from the Sharr Mountains, while in the winter season populated by the migrating seagulls arriving from the Adriatic coast, Prizren still radiates the beauty created by the human hand combined with the beauty bestowed upon by the divine. The old Romans called it Therandë; The Byzantines called it Prizdrijana, and to all of them Prizren was the center through which passed the old Dardan road that was called Via de Zenta. Prizren flourished the most in the XIV century during the rule of the Ottoman Empire, when it became an important commercial and artisan city with more than 1500 workshops and a center of culture and art as well. Usually Prizren is known as a museum city or the city of sources and beauties. Prizren is the richest Kosovar city in cultural monuments. Under state protection are more than 65 cultural heritage monuments with a treasure of artefacts from different periods. The city is inhabited by Albanians, Turks, Bosnians, Roma and others, who by way of their work have built an environment of good neighbourhood, reciprocal respect and of a promising future. Prizen is a city that should be visited for its charming beauties reflected by the cultural and historic monuments, the panoramic environment, as well as for the hospitality of its inhabitants. 109

110 Monuments Supplied with a great number of religious and profane buildings and with the original part of the city, which are close to one another, the attractive center of the city of Prizren is the most picturesque and the best preserved in Kosovo. A short climb on the hill nearby leads you to the castle of the city from where you can see the entire city. The old tradition of inter-ethnical and inter-religious tolerance can be observed in the small distances that exist between the hundred years old catholic and orthodox churches, mosques and tekkes. Mosques Prizen has over 46 mosques, most of which were built during the Ottoman Empire. Built by local masters and well designed, they have impressive inner spaces that connect to the domes, porches, and the minarets outside. The mosques were neglected for many years and were damaged during the war of 1999 in Kosovo. The post-war projects, mainly financed by Turkey, started their renovation and restoration. Visitors are always welcome inside the mosques, while during prayer time they can take a walk outside. The preferred time for visits is 08:00 12:00 and 14:00 16:00. Photographs are allowed; when entering mosques is preferred to have modest clothing and shoes should be taken off before entering inside. The design of the mosques has been carried out according to predefined rules. Usually, over the building is a dome, near is the minaret which is used to call the prayer, and the porch (hall) where the believers take off 110

111 their shoes before entering inside. The part of the building used for washing is used to receive ablution, while every mosque is directed towards Mecca. The biggest mosques usually are surrounded by walls, have a garden, graves, sometimes even shrines, classrooms, as well as a medresas and maktabs (religious elementary and high schools). It is possible even to see delicate paintings and decorations, which never portrait humans, but are focused on the presentation of geometrical figures, ornaments and arabesques (Arabian calligraphy). Churches Prizren has several beautiful churches which belong to different historic periods. Because of the frequent change of the powers ruling the city, their destinations changed several times. The churches belong to the Orthodox and Catholic religions. The visits inside the orthodox churches are possible only with special permission provided beforehand by the head of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Graçanica. Filigree Filigree is known in Kosovo as an ancient craft, which used gold and silver to produce ornaments engraved with precision and exceptional skill in thousand of beads. Filigree is believed to have its origin from the ancient Egyptians and was later perfected by the Etruscans and Greeks. Historical records show that in Kosovo filigree arrived during the XV century and it started to be produced in the area at the same time. There are about 200 small producers of filigree today in Prizren and its regions, who survive by way of selling their produce in special shops. Among the best known and the biggest is the group of ten artisans, who work together in a small workshop on the northwest of the city. Simply called Filigree, the company was established in the previous communism system in 1947 and survived with a lot of difficulty, until it was forced to be closed after the privatization process following the war of A group of ten artisans work today outside the building, producing with traditional methods elegant works upon orders from customers inside and outside the country. Their workshop can be visited by everyone that is interested to see this work from near. The workshop has also its shop with exhibited produces which can be bought. 111

112 Kosovo and Prizren The Republic of Kosovo is a small state, in the center of the Balkan Peninsula. It borders FYROM, Albania, Serbia and Montenegro and it has a square surface of Km 2. Based on Resolution nr of the United Nations Security Council, Kosovo was a territory administered by the United Nations Interim Administration. The all-inclusive proposal for the Solution of Kosovo status was presented by the General Secretary of the United Nations Organization (UN), to the members of the UN Security Council on 26 March In the Declaration of Independence on 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Parliament expressed its dedication to fully implement this agreement. The provisions of the agreement are included in the Constitution of the Kosovo Republic, approved by the Kosovo Parliament on 9 April The capital of Kosovo is Prishtina. Kosovo is divided into 7 regions/sectors: Ferizaj, Gjakova, Gjilan, Mitrovica, Peja, Prishtina, Prizren, and 30 administrative units (communes). The Commune of Prizren is in the south of Kosovo and stretches over a surface area of 640km2, which makes 5.94% of the overall territory of Kosovo. On the west Prizren borders Albania, on the south the commune of Dragash, on the south-east the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, on the east the commune of Shtërpcë, on the northeast the commune of Syhareka, on the north the commune of Rahovec and on the north-west the commune of Gjakova. The center of the commune of Prizren is the city of Prizren. The distance from Prizren to Prishtina is 77 km, Tirana 198 km, Skopje 122 km, Podgorica 260 km and Beograd 420 km. Natural and Topographic Characteristics The commune of Prizren is situated m above sea level. It is surrounded by the Sharri Mountains with their highest peak at 2,748 meters. The commune has a rich and dense network of rivers. The rivers flow into the White Drinos and the Adriatic Sea. The rivers flowing from the Sharri Mountains are very quick and deep and have narrow gaps that often form canyons. The rivers preserve their water level even during summer because of snow melting on the Sharri Mountains. The average flow is 56m3/per second and the reservoir has an overall surface of 18,592km2. In the commune of Prizren dominates the continental climate, the Mediterranean climate permeates from the Adriatic currents which reach the city through 112

113 the canyons of the White Drinos. The climate helps in the cultivation of high quality grapefruit, trees and vegetables as well. The average annual temperature is 12.5 degree Celsius; the lowest temperature is 1.3 degree Celsius during January and the highest temperature is 23.2 degree Celsius during July. A Brief History of Prizren During different historic periods, Prizren, the antique Theranda, was as one of the biggest economical-cultural centres. According to the Latin documents, we encounter Prizren with different names, such as: Prisren, Prisrenum, Presarin, Prisarano, Prisreno, Prisori, Pristren, Prisarini, Jorsaim etc. Meanwhile the Byzantines called it Prisdriana, Prezren, Prizorian. In the Ottoman documents we encounter it by the names of Tarzerin, Perserin, Zerin etc. The Slavs called it Prizren, Prezren, Prizrin, Prizdren, Prezdrin etc. The cultural heritage of Prizren reflects the wonderful history of the city. This culture is stratified throughout the centuries and reaches us today very rich. By having a good geographical and geopolitical position, Prizren has been always in the crossroads of big cultures, and ethnical cultures as well, which have lived beside one another, such as Dardan-Illyrian-Albanian, Roman, Byzantine, Slav, Turkish-Ottoman cultures etc. This is the reason why in the city were spoken several official languages for centuries. In according to the chart of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II, Prizren was mentioned as Episcopacy under the jurisdiction of the Archiepiscopacy of Ohrid. In 1072, under the leadership of George Voiteh, developed the rebellion of the Balkan populations against the rule of the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Duke. The rebellion ended in Immediately after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Prizren was ruled by the Bulgarians. Around , the city was conquered by Stefan Provencani and later was put again under the Bulgarian invasion. During this period, the city was protected by its own fortress and other fortresses around it. Prizren was a city of free trade, center of art and culture, residence of the catholic bishop and of the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian bishop. Prizren achieved its highest level of development during the XIV century. At this time it had assumed the typical appearance of the medieval western cities: civitas (administrative and economical center) and castrum or castellum (city castle). According to the descriptions of the time, Prizren was very much alike Ragusa (Dubrovnik). Indeed, during the first half of the XIV century, Prizren was a big center of Ragusian colonists. In order to protect their interests, the Ragusian merchants that were active in Prizren asked for a consul to be nominated in the city. According to the decision of the Big Ragusian Council on 08 March 1332, a Ragusa consulate was set up in Prizren (quod eius mansio sit in Prisren). The above date marks the beginning of the consular life in Kosovo. Meanwhile, Prizren possessed judicial exterritoriality. Such an experience spread even to the other cities of Kosovo, such as Novo Bërd, Trepça, Prishtina, Peja and Janjevë. In Prizren, the Ragusians set up even some other institutions, 113

114 such as the customs, the forging machine to print money, churches and hospitals. The coin with Prisren inscription was forged in this same city. In the second half of the XIV century the city started to become weaker because of political conflicts and divisions. At that time, after the death of Emperor Dushan (1355), the city was ruled by the Serbian king Vukashi ( ), and later by the Arbër princes of Balshaj and Kastrioti families. During all of the medieval age, in Prizren and in the surrounding areas were built renown monuments of Roman-catholic religion (Sancta Maria de Prisren and Sanctus Petrus supra Prisren), as well as Orthodox Byzantine and Serbian monuments (The Church of Lady Prene-Bogorodica Ljevishka and the Monastery of Saints Mihal Gabriel-Sveti Arhangjel near Prizren). It is likely that the city fell several times under the Ottoman rule, until 1459 when it ultimately fell under the administration of the Ottoman Empire, and started to flourish again. In the XVI century were built wonderful Ottoman religious monuments such as the Mosque of Gazi Mehmet Pasha, the Hamam of Gazi Mehmet Pasha and the Mosque of Sinan Pasha. At the time Prizren became part of the Ottoman province of Rumelia. It was distinguished as a commercial city with prosperity, benefiting by the geographical position and the commercial routes north-south and east-west. Prizren became the biggest city of the Ottoman administration in Kosovo. At the end of the XVII century Prizren was conquered by the Austrians and their ally forces, but very quickly the Ottomans gained again full control over the city. Prizren was a cultural and intellectual center of Kosovo during the Ottoman period. It was dominated by the Muslim population, which constituted 70% of the overall population in In 1878, during the League of Prizren, the city became the biggest cultural center of the Albanians and the main center of Albanian, not only of Kosovo, politics and culture. A gathering of Albanians in 1863 In the XX century, the city underwent an intensive period of rapid constructions, especially near the commercial areas. At the end of 1918, when the Serbian-Croatian-Slovenian Kingdom was created, Prizren was conquered and was included in the umbrella of this newly formed state, which in 1929 was called the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. For many decades, the city became one of the strongest centres of Albanian nationalism in the war for independence. 114

115 Prizren and its region were heavily affected by the war in Kosovo in At the end of the war, in June 1999, the major part of the Albanian population returned to Prizren. The most important and famous archaeological find in Prizren is the socalled Runner of Prizren which features the figure of a running girl, made of bronze and discovered in the XIX century. It was sold to the British Museum where it still stands. Based on the investigations of British Museum specialists, the figure was crafted in Sparta around 500 B.C. It may have reached Prizren as a precious gift or as loot. Population Characteristics of Kosovo and Prizren The number of population in Kosovo, based on the last registration, has been estimated from to inhabitants. Based on the analysis of living standards in 2000, over 88% of the Kosovo population are Kosovo Albanians, 7% Serbians, 1.9% Bosnian Muslims, 1.7% Roma and 1% Turks. The city of Prizren is the administrative center of the commune of Prizren, which has 76 villages and approximately inhabitants. Following the war of 1999, at least people moved from the commune of Prizren inside and outside of Kosovo. The fast and successful reconstruction of over houses after the end of the war created conditions for the majority of the displaced to return to their houses. The population of the commune of Prizren is approximately 90% Albanian. The rest are Bosnian minority groups, Turks, Roma and Serbians. Based on the overall registration in Kosovo in 2011, the City of Prizren is estimated to have inhabitants. The city of Prizren is inhabited by Albanian, Bosnians, Turks, Roma and Serbians. Even though Kosovo Bosnians are the biggest minority group, the Turkish community is well known and influential. The Turkish language is spoken in a major part even by the inhabitants of Prizren and Kosovo. On the northern part, in the region of Podrima, Albanians and Turks live together, in the region of Podgore Albanians and Bosnians live together, on the south-eastern part of the commune, in the Valley of Zhupa the population is mainly composed of Bosnians and partially Albanians and Serbians. Economical Characteristics of the Commune of Prizren Private enterprises in the commune of Prizren are mainly based on agriculture, trade, construction and the production of food. Private businesses in most cases have difficulty in acquiring capital investments both from the local companies and from foreign ones. An additional problem is competition with products from Serbia, Albania, Turkey and China, which dominate the market with their products, while Chinese products are considerably cheaper. Because of financial difficulties some companies closed while others are reducing the number of the employers. The economical 115

116 decrease is directly contributing in the rise of unemployment and poverty. Almost all of the agricultural and livestock produce is at the hands of private entrepreneurs, informal and small businesses. In Prizren and in the commune operate seven banks which have established their branches, such as: ProCredit Bank, Raiffeisen Bank, Turkish Economical Bank (TEB), Nova Ljubljanska Bank (NLB), Private Business Bank (BPB), Economical Bank and National Commercial Bank (BKT), as well as microfinance institutions such as FINCA, KEP etc persons are employed in the Commune of Prizren. Out of them, are employed in the private sector and in the social sector and in the public sector. Most of the employees work in the industrial sector (41%), wholesale and retail trade (24.6%), services (20%) and construction (13.4%). 60% of the inhabitants of the commune of Prizren live in rural areas and obtain their incomes through agricultural activities. The agricultural and livestock sector make a large contribution to the gross domestic product of the commune, which is rich with many agricultural resources and which has produced throughout the centuries various kinds of corns, grapes, vegetables and fruit trees. The commune of Prizren has a big potential for the development of tourism, considering the geographical position, the picturesque Sharri Mountains, adequate climate conditions and the wealth of ancient cultural heritage. The warm hospitality, along with the delicious traditional Prizren food, can be encountered in every corner of the city of Prizren and along the Lumbardhi valley and Zhupa Valley where it is possible to experience some of the most beautiful moments offered by the generous hospitality of Prizren hoteliers. Social, Health and Educational Services The Center for Social Wellbeing (CSW) is one of the communal institutions which carries out a very wide range of responsibilities. Social services, family counselling, divorces, street children and orphans are some of the problems that this center deals with on an ongoing basis. Among others, CSW provides material assistance for people with disabilities, old and sensible, displaced or returned refugees. In the commune of Prizren, the state operates the primary health service supported by 32 family health centres spread out over all the commune, and the secondary service supported by a regional hospital with over 670 health employees, which offers services for more than inhabitants of the region of Prizren. The services offered are emergency service, intensive care and stationary service. The private health sector is widespread and covers a considerable part of commune needs with 50 private health and laboratory units, over 30 dental service units and more than 40 pharmacies. 116

117 The Commune of Prizren offers educational opportunities in three levels: primary, high and university education. In the commune of Prizren there are 40 public elementary schools and 2 private elementary schools, 5 public high schools and 2 private high schools, 1 public university and 2 private universities licensed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of Kosovo. Education in all of these educational institutions is provided in all of the languages that are spoken by the communities of the commune (Albanian, Bosnian/Serbian and Turkish). In the commune of Prizren there are two special schools, one for children with hearing and speaking disabilities, and another for children with slow development. Cultural Heritage Monuments The Castle The castle of Prizren contains in itself an important part from the ancient history of the city. Its dominating topographic position over the city, the very attractive natural landscape and the well-thought architectonic configuration give it undeniable archaeological, historic and touristic values. It is situated on the northern part of the city, above a conical shaped hill, 525 meters above sea level. The fortification walls follow the contour lines of the terrain, surrounding an oval shaped surface of 1.5 hectares that extends in the north-south direction. Written records mention very little of the castle of Prizren. The oldest known note was written by the Byzantine chronicler, Procopius of Caesarea, in his work De aedificiis (On buildings). In this work, among the restored fortifications in Dardania he mentioned even this castle with the name of Petrizen. A more voluminous research was made in 1969 which included archaeological excavations and the architectonic recording of the castle. During the excavations, traces from the XI-XIX centuries were found. The continuance of the archaeological excavations between 2004 and 2009 until 2011 revealed a prehistoric settlement which dates back to the bronze and early iron eras, and which served as the initial life nucleus in the region. Just the same, these excavations brought to light for the first time architectural traces and material findings that date from the Roman period to antiquity. During the Ottoman period, the castle was enlarged, its fortification walls strengthened, and a hamam, mosques and other buildings for military needs were built inside. 117

118 Main Gate Mosque Lower town Upper town South Town ANTIC PERIOD First stage (5th cent. BC) MEDIEVALISM PERIOD First stage (11th century) Second stage (12th -13th cent.) Third stage (14th cent.) OTTOMAN PERIOD First stage (16th cent.) Second stage (17th cent.) Third stage (17th cent.) Fourth stage (18th cent.) Fifth stage (18-19th cent.) Lower town South town Main Gate Mosque Upper town 118

119 The castle of Prizren carried out its primary function until Since then it was neglected and started to degrade. In 2008 some restoration and conservation emergency measures were taken to prevent this degrading process. The castle is one of the most interesting points for further investigation and for the promotion of cultural-historic tourism in Kosovo. The Church of Saint Friday - Levishka The church was rebuilt in 1307 by King Milutin over the remains of an old temple, of a Byzantine church specifically, and was dedicated to Saint Mary. Following the fall of Prizren under the Ottoman Empire in 1455, it was converted into a mosque which had a double function: to serve as a temple until other mosques were built, and to demonstrate the power of the new ruler, so as to make the population aware as to who was the real house lord. For this reason the mosque was called Fethiye (liberators) and Xhuma xhami (The Friday Mosque). Following the construction of the first mosques in Prizren, it was once again used as a church until the XVIII century. Since 1756 it was once again used as a mosque until , when the Balkan wars began. During its conversion into a mosque, the building was plastered 119

120 from the inside and outside, some windows were walled in and a minaret balcony was built over the bell tower. After 1913 it was used as a church, and in 1923 the minaret over the bell tower was destroyed. During the church underwent an overall restoration and conservation, the plaster was taken off, the walled-in windows were opened again and other reinforcements were carried out as well. During the restoration-conservation works, the mural paintings were revealed again inside and in the end the church was turned into a museum. During various renovations were made on the roof and in the object interior. The base of the building is rectangular. Initially it had three naves, but after its reconstruction in 1307 when five domes were added and the exonarthex with a bell tower was built, it took the shape of a deformed (unproportional) church with five naves. On the outside the walls are not plastered, and so the outer mural structure made of stones and tiles is visible. Inside, the walls aew plastered and partially painted. The church is the first monument of the city of Prizren that was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List, in The Church of Saint Saviour In the most dominating old part of the city, on a very steep slope on the south-western side of the castle, is the Church of Saint Saviour. We don t have exact information on the construction date, but it is supposed that it was built between 1307 and 1348, based on the fact that the church was mentioned in Dushani s Decorate (1348). According to this decorate the sponsor of the church is Mlladen Vlladojeviq who dedicated this church to Saint Saviour. Later the church was used by the Cincares who worked in the castle at the time of the Rrotullas, Prizren aristocrats (about 1836). The church has a rectangular shape with an apse, while the narthex has a pointed gabble roof from the outside, and the central part has only one dome. Later the building was extended on the southern side, and after it was burned in 1882, it was extended further on the southern and western sides although the construction works never fully finished. This extension 120

121 was planned to make the church bigger and to give it the name of Holy Trinity afterwards. Inside there are mural paintings as well, which were realised following the example of the Church of Levishka in the exonarthex. During the building was completely restored, the southern extension from the second phase was demolished, and the church changed its outside appearance. Some further minor renovations were carried out during Church of Saint George - Runoviq The Church of Saint George Runoviq is in the old part of the city, near the Shatërvan Square, respectively in the courtyard of the Synodal Church of Saint George. It was built at the end of the XV century by the Runoviq brothers. Later, at the end of the XIX century, the Synodal Church of the same name was built, and, for this reason, the old church was used for preserving the icons and other ecclesiastical requisites. The church belongs to the type of the medieval family churches, with a rectangular base, an apse and three naves that were documented during the excavations carried out in During the excavations the narthex and the surrounding graves were discovered. The church is built with river pebbles and with arches in the interior, while outside it has a pointed gabble roof covered with lead sheets. Inside, on the south-western part, is the grave of the Metropolitan Bishop Mihajllo ( ). Inside the church are frescoes dating from the XVIII century. In the church was restored and conserved from the outside and inside, and the surrounding space was readjusted. Also, from some renovations were carried out on the building and its floor, including the substitution of lead sheets with new ones, new electric instalments and inner plastering, the conservation and strengthening of the mural paintings, and pavement of the courtyard with marble tiles. 121

122 The Concathedral of the Helping Lady Southwest to the urban center, in the old center of the city at Qafëpazari Quarter, is located the Catholic Church of the Helping Lady along with its other facilities. The church, with its Greek and Roman architectural elements, was built in 1870 by Archbishop Dario Bucciarelli, while later Toma Glasnoviq built the bell tower and installed the clock. The building has three naves and a semi-circled altar. The middle nave is covered by a gabble roof, while the side naves have flat roofs covered by tiles. The vertical poles, the steps and the balcony are made of wood, the interior walls are plastered with lime mortar, while the outside walls are not plastered, and the wall structure made of pumice stones can be easily seen at first sight. On the arch of the middle nave there are frescoes painted in al secco technique that feature civic motifs. As such, in the painting featuring the Lady, near the altar area are painted citizens from Prizren dressed in clothes that were characteristic of the time. Above the veranda are the paintings of two prominent figures from the past of the Balkans, Gjergj Kastrioti, leader of the Albanian Principality, and Joannes de Hunyad, Hungarian governor and commander-in-chief. The author of these paintings is Simcowiss, the Austrian painter who painted them in 1970, when, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary, the walls, the poles and the floor were laid with marble tiles, the steps and the veranda with reinforced concrete and a metal fence was built at the entrance and at the steps of the buildings. The complex of the Concathedral of the Helping Lady includes other facilities such as the Semeniste building (Catholic Religious School), the Priest s House, the Sisters of Honour House, the Bishop s Seat, the Parish Building and other residential and commercial buildings. The Kërkëk Namazgah Mosque Namazgah lies in the north-western part of the city near the main Prizren- Gjakova road. The name is derived from the Persian language, meaning a place for prayer-worship. Following the fall of Prizren under the Ottoman Empire in 1455, Isa Bey, a commander under Fatih Sultan Mehmed, built Namazgah in a very short period of time. The main master and supervisor was Çaushi Ahmed. Upon the total establishment of the Ottoman administration in Prizren, Namazgah was neglected because the other first 122

123 mosques built at the time were taking an important role. Since Namazgah was situated in the suburbs of former Prizren, close to the fields, it was used by the farmers that went in to pray during the time they worked on their fields. In the 1950s a big depot was built nearby. For its construction, a large number of stones from the Namazgah Mosque were used; similarly, during the construction of the health center in the 1980s, the old graves surrounding Namazgah were destroyed. As it is possible to see today, there have remained only 2 or 3 of the former graves which are converted into shrines. Archaeological investigations on Namazgah were made in 1969 and 1989, but unfortunately no protective measures were taken. In 2000, the Institute of Museum Monuments of Prizren, considering the importance of this object, designed the project for the restoration of Namazgah. In , with the financial support of the Turkish government and Commune Council, restoration works were carried out on the building, and the surrounding area was readjusted. During the restoration, special importance was given to the construction material and technique in order for them to be as identical as possible. The Namazgah Mosque is an important object because it is rare in its kind in the Balkan Peninsula. Even though this typology was once widespread for mosques in these regions, because of the nature of its use, simplicity and weak construction, it is almost entirely extinct nowadays. In all of the Balkans, only 3-4 of them have been saved, while in Kosovo there are 2 such mosques, both of them in the region of Prizren. The Archaeological Museum - The Clock Tower The archaeological museum is housed inside the hamam (public bath during the Ottoman period) area, built at the end of the XV century, in 1498 specifically. The builder of the hamam is supposed to have been Shemsudin Ahmed Bey. Because of the absence of written sources, the builder and the date of construction are not exactly known, as well as the period until when the building was used as a hamam. What is known is that the hamam didn t have its initial function in the middle of the XIX century, 123

124 when the Clock Tower was built by Eshref Pasha over the warm area of the hamam. The building is of rectangular shape and built with various stones. The roof and the domes are covered with lead sheets. The clock tower was built with baked adobe bricks. Based on the functional system of the hamams, the building lacks its entrance the cold part (apodyterium). Instead, in the area where this part should have been, there was a residential house over 100 hundreds years old which makes us know that at least for this period of time the hamam didn t carry out its original function. This was proved when the residential object was destroyed in 2003 and when during the archaeological excavations the foundations of the abovementioned areas were detected which were missing in the hamam, and over which the residential house had been erected. The building was abandoned for a long time and was used by the nearby inhabitants as a depot, henhouse etc. This degradation went on until the end of the 1960s when restoration and conservation works were launched on a great scale. In 1975 it was solemnly inaugurated but with a new function, from a hamam it was converted into an Archaeological Museum. The museum exhibits materials from the archaeological sites of the region of Prizren, findings from the communes of Prizren, Dragash, Rahovec and Syhareka. The material presented has a wide chronological range and includes the early Neolithic era, Bronze era, Iron era, Roman period, and the early and late Medieval Ages. A partial renovation was carried out in The Mosque of Suzi Efendi Suzi Efendi is one of the oldest poets of the region. He was born and died in Prizren. Near the Lumbardhi River, he built a school with a library, a water fountain, a canal for the irrigation of fields, and a stone bridge. This quarter was called Suzi Quarter in his honour. The name of the poet 124

125 and famous historian is Muhamed Efendi, son of Mahmud who himself was son of Abdullah. His nickname was Suzi the Poet. At one time Suzi was a kadi (judge), until he was engaged as personal secretary of Gazi Ali Bey Mihalogllu and participated in wars together with him. Upon returning to his birthplace, he expressed his experiences in poetry and wrote more than verses. He was a teacher at the school which he himself had founded. Also he enriched the library with books written by well-known foreign authors. He died and was buried in the courtyard of the mosque. Next to his grave was buried his brother Nehari. The mosque was built in 1513 and is one of the oldest buildings from the Ottoman period. In the courtyard of the mosque there are many graves with very beautiful inscriptions from the XVII, XVIII, and XIX centuries. In 1955 the shrine was put under protection by law. The Mosque of Suzi is on the left side of Lumbardhi River, on the Rrasat e Kosharës Street. It is of rectangular shape and has a hipped roof covered with roof tiles. The porch is on the north-western side, supported by eleven wood poles. The foundations and the lower part of the walls are made of stones, while the upper part of the walls is made of adobe tiles (unbaked clay), plastered with mortar. In the course of time the building underwent several arbitrary interventions. The first floor of the library was destroyed and now it is used as a residential house. The Minaret of the Arasta Mosque In the old part of Prizren, on the right bank of Lumbardhi River, Evrenos - Zade Jakup Bey built a mesjid (mosque) between 1526 and 1538, and later added a minaret. Shops sprang up in the area surrounding the mosque, and so this part of the city became an enclosed market (çarshi) known by the name of Arasta, which was used by the merchants for the mosque as well. In the course of time the mosque was restored and renovated many times in its appearance and use. In the XIX century, the building was remade in the neo-classical style, and two floors were constructed inside. The ground floor was used by the merchants as a depot and offices, and the upper floor was used as a space to pray. The last restoration carried out on the building took place in The mosque continued in its initial function until On behalf of modernization and development, the government of that time destroyed 125

126 entire complexes in the old center of Prizren with the scope to change the appearance and the organization of the city. Unfortunately, because of these interventions, the Arasta market was totally destroyed and the mosque as well, except for the minaret which was saved and remains today as an obelisk in front of the complex of multi-storey buildings, in disharmony with the organic urbanisation and the silhouette of the city. The original appearance was totally erased. In 1970 the minaret of the mosque was restored and conserved, and was enlisted as a monument of culture. A restoration-conservation was carried out in 2007 with the support of the Swedish organization Cultural Heritage without Borders (CHwB), the Communal Council and the IMM of Prizren. The Saraç Mosque The Mosque of Kukli Bey The Saraç Mosque is located in the quarter of the same name, where a long time ago the artisans crafted leather materials and which gave the name to the mosque. The mosque stands near the Halveti Tekke and near the hamam of Gazi Mehmed Pasha. It is one of the oldest mosques of the city, built in 1531 by Kukli Mehmed Bey who at the time was regional governor from Thessaloniki to Bosnia. The building has a square shape 9.0 x 9.0m; it is built with natural stones and with lime mortar as a connecting material. Over the square base is the rectangular drum that supports the dome. Above the inner central area is a dome which from the outside is a pointed octagon covered with stony slabs. In 1963, while widening the road, the hall of the mosque was destroyed, and between 1977 and 1994 were performed some damaging and non-professional renovations which resulted in the loss of the inner mural paintings and wood elements. Similarly, some various renovations and reparations were carried out during The hall was rebuilt in In 2009 a failure in the electric instalments caused a fire that burned the interior of the mosque. 126

127 The Mosque of Mehmed Pasha The Mosque of Gazi Mehmed Pasha (Bayrakli) stands in the south-eastern part of the city and is of special cultural and historic value. Gazi Mehmed Pasha built the hamam, the mosque, the shrine, the medresa, the library, the classrooms and other facilities from 1563 to The mosque of Mehmed Pasha is one of the biggest mosques in Prizren. It has a square shape and a big porch on three sides. As the central praying area has a dominating dome, the porch has a hipped roof supported by wooden 127

128 poles. The mosque is built with stones and is plastered on both sides. The roof of the mosque (the dome, the pendants, the porch etc.) is covered with lead sheets. Even though Mehmed Pasha built a shrine (mausoleum) in the courtyard of the mosque, he was not buried there because he died away from Prizren in a battle in Panoni (Hungary). Besides its architectural importance, the mosque of Mehmed Pasha is of historic importance because it was here that the assembly of the League of Prizren was convened. During the various festivities and manifestations, the Albanian flag flew over the mosque, giving it the epithet Bayrakli (flag-bearer). The object was restored several times, but unfortunately not in a professional manner. The last and biggest reconstruction was carried out from 1994 to Also during this time the mosque was repainted again. In the courtyard are some old graves. In the 1970s, a part of the mosque was annexed and converted into the museum of the League of Prizren. The Hamam of Gazi Mehmed Pasha The Hamam of Gazi Mehmed Pasha is in the center of the city, near the Kukli - Mehmed Bey and Emin Pasha Mosque Mosques. It was built between 1563 and On the main door is the inscription (1833), which shows the date when the Hamam was restored by the Tahir and Mehmed Pashë Rrotulli brothers. The Hamam was used as a public bath between 1927 until 1944 and was an integral part of social and cultural life. It was declared a monument of culture in

129 The hamam is a couple hamam type, which was used by both genders at the same time. It was built with different types of stone. The part for men is a little bigger than the part for women. The hamam has all the spaces that hamams of this type have. It is composed of the cold part (apodyterium) which was used for reception, drinks and the wardrobe, and then is the lukewarm part (tepidarium) which was used to provide customers with the necessary accessories such as towels, soaps etc. In this area were the sanitary farcilities, too. This space leads to the main space, which is the hottest part (caldarium) used for washing, sweating, massaging and entertainment. Within the hamam are included even the technical rooms (qylhani), which housed the water depots and the boiler. These rooms were in the southern part of the building, and the customers were not allowed to enter them. The walls are 90cm thick and are not plastered on the outside, while inside they were plastered with lime mortar. The roof of the building has two big domes on the cold part and 9 small domes over the warm part. The roof of the lukewarm room and boiler has the shape of an arch. On the cold part, 129

130 the roof cover is made of tiles, while in the other parts is made of lead sheets. Until 1964, the hamam was surrounded by bars; it was then when it started to degrade and the restoration and conservation work followed. Some restorations were carried out in the 1970s; similar work was carried out even after the 1980s, when the building was totally neglected and was used as a depot. After 2000, the cold part of the hamam was used as a gallery. Even though in the course of time it underwent some interventions, the hamam preserved its originality in the compositional and structural aspects. This is why it is considered a cultural monument. The Complex of the League of Prizren The memorial complex of the League of Prizren is situated in the old center of the city, and is of special cultural, historic, religious and environmental value. It was built following the construction of the Gazi Mehmed Pasha Mosque. Around the mosque were erected other buildings such as medresas, shrines, libraries and residential houses. The latter are mainly located on the south-western part of Gazi Mehmed Pasha Complex and include also the museum complex of the League of Prizren. These buildings of vernacular architecture are expressive 130

131 of their values whether taken separate or as an ensemble. At the end of the XIX century and beginning of the XX century, during the restoration and renovation of the residential houses, the influence of the European baroque style with a mix of neo-classical style became clearly visible, which gives to these buildings a special appearance. Unfortunately, after the 1950s the old buildings suffered massive destruction as a result of the widening of the road and of the change of the direction of Lumbardhi River which were realised on behalf of the city modernization. Few residential houses of this quarter are preserved today, and some parts of the medresa were destroyed. In 1968, because of the road construction, the building near the river was destroyed, leaving only the Residence of the Albanian League of Prizren which was moved some meters away. From important interventions were carried out, destroying some buildings of the complex of Gazi Mehmed Pasha, to form the Museum of the League of Prizren for its 100th anniversary. Some houses inside the complex were reconstructed due to their bad condition. The buildings of the complex were constructed similar to residential houses, so the lowest level of the construction is made of stones while the highest level was made of adobe tiles. The wide shelter was an important element to control light inside the building. In 2003 the Institute of Museum Monuments and the Communal Council carried out the reconstruction of the courtyard and the renovation of the buildings. The Mosque of Sinan Pasha The mosque of Sinan Pasha, even though it is not the oldest one in town, is beyond doubt the widest and the most beautiful. Its location makes it 131

132 to dominate the square and the old bazaar of Prizren. It was built in 1615 by Sinan Pasha who held different positions in the Ottoman administration. During the Balkan Wars and World War I, the mosque was used as an ammunition depot by the Bulgarian and Serbian armies. Being aware that part of the construction materials were taken from the Monastery of the Archangels, 2 km away in the suburbs of Prizren, in the 1930 s the administration of the time tried to destroy the mosque and restore its stones back to the monastery. During the execution of the plan, the porch of the mosque was the only part that was destroyed because large protests forced the leaders of the plan to abandon it and interrupt the destruction. In the mosque was converted into a museum of oriental manuscripts. The building has a square shape with an annex on the south-eastern part. This shape is unique in Kosovo except for the mosque of Emin Pasha in Prizren which was built in the XIX century as an architectural copy of this mosque. The building was erected 3 meters above the level of the road. The construction materials used are river pebbles and lime mortar, while on the outside it is covered with carved stones that are supposed to have been taken (bought?) from the Monastery of the Archangels. The minaret is made of pumice stones and is plastered from the outside. There are 122 steps (basamak) up to the balcony of the minaret (sherefe). The interior has been plastered and painted at least twice. The last painting was carried out during the middle of the XIX century. Restorationconservation works were implemented many times, while the conservation of paintings went on from 1973 to 1986 but were not finished. In 2007, the restoration-conservation works restarted and were completed in The Mosque of Emin Pasha In Saraç Quarter, Emin Pasha, sandjakbey of Prizren from 1789 to 1843, built a mosque, the mejtepe (Turkish religious school) and other facilities near the hamam of Gazi Mehmed Pasha. The construction year is proved 132

133 by the inscription on the entrance door on which, among others, is mentioned that the mosque was built in 1247 according to the Hijri (Muslim) calendar, corresponding to 1831 of the Miladi (Christian) calendar. The Mosque has a shape specific for the region, and is similar to the mosque of Sinan Pasha, but of smaller dimensions. The interior paintings are also similar to the painting technique used during the second stage on the Mosque of Sinan Pasha. It is important to stress the fact that both these mosques are the only ones that preserve mural paintings. The paintings of the inner walls and partially of the outer walls were realised in empire baroque style, which proves the penetration and influence of European art. They show floral motifs, dominated by yellow and light blue colours. The building has a square plan. An area has been added on the south-eastern part in the shape of an apse. In this area is the mihrab (the prayer niche) which makes the mosque special in comparison to other mosques in this region. The functional organisation is the same as in other mosques: the entrance to the building is through the veranda, covered by three domes resting on four stone pillars. Next is the central prayer area. To the left of the prayer hall is the mahvil (gallery) which is supported by four stone pillars and has a low wooden fence. The prayer area is covered by a central dome and by a semi-dome over the apse. The walls are made of various stones and are plastered on both sides, while the domes are laid with lead sheets. The elegant minaret is made of stones and is plastered on the outside. In the courtyard of the mosque is the cemetery together with the grave of Emin Pasha. Unfortunately the other supplementing buildings of the mosque were destroyed in the course of time. In historic context, the mosque is important even by the fact that Emin Pasha belonged to the aristocratic family of the Rrotlajs, who were influential in the course of history of the region since the XVII century. 133

134 The Halveti Teqe The Halveti Teqe lies in Saraç Quarter, near the Kukli Mehmed Bey Mosque. This teke belongs to the Halveti order (halveti derives from the Arabian word halvet loneliness ). It took its name from its founder, the great patriarch Omaru l-halvetiu who died in in Tabriz. The establishment of the Halveti Teke in Prizren is connected to Sheikh Osman Baba. According to historical records he was from Vlesha, a village near Peshkopia in Albania. He attended the medresa in Serez (Greece), where he was appointed to follow the Halveti order. After he finished his studies he served at the Kukli Bey Mosque in Prizren. Upon leaving this mosque, Mehmet Bey donated some land near the mosque where Sheikh Osman Baba started to develop his tariqat that was later to be known as Halveti. The teke was built in Its construction is simple, built of stones and adobe bricks, and the roof is covered with traditional tiles. Even though it is made of several objects such as the teke, the prayer hall (semihan), the shrine, the residential and the reception building, the complex in its organizational nature is composed of two parts: the teke and the prayer hall. The prayer hall has a rectangular shape and is the main building where prayers and other religious rites are performed. On its western side is the shrine 134

135 with the mausoleums of the tariqat leaders, starting from the founder of the tariqat, Osman Baba and nine other leaders. There are two springs framed in stone in the courtyard of the teke, one is circular like a fountain, while the other has a rectangular shape with motifs carved on its front side. It is important to mention the residential building on the eastern side even though it is outside the complex today. The house was built in the XVIII century; it has large dimensions and is rich in folkloric elements. In the course of time the complex underwent some arbitrary renovations; some efforts have been made to preserve the original elements but unfortunately they haven t had much success. The Complex of Shrines of Karabash Efendi The complex of shrines of Karabash Efendi is of historic, spiritual and architectural importance. These shrines are the only old mausoleums (tyrbe) that have remained in Prizren. People that come to visit them perform different rituals. Besides the other graves, in the complex there are three other shrines that belong to different periods of time. The shrine of Karabash Efendi is the oldest shrine (XVIII century) and has an octagonal shape. It was built with stones and it is plastered on both sides. From the outside it has an octagonal roof covered with tiles, while from the inside it has the shape of a dome. The shrine of Kemani Rabije Hanëm was built in It has a rectangular shape, is built with stones and plastered on both sides. The roof is covered with tiles. The shrine of Sheikh Hysein was built in the first half of the XX century. Similarly it has a rectangular shape, is built with stones and is plastered on both sides. The roof is covered with tiles. From an architectural aspect these shrines have special values since they are the only ones grouped in the same place together in a complex with hundreds of graves. In general, the mausoleums have undergone minor changes if we don t take into account the frequent small interventions, but as a whole the complex went through big changes after World War II when in this place was built the Regional Hospital of Prizren, the Normal High School and the University Pedagogical School. 135

136 The House of Sheikh Hasan The house of Sheikh Hasan is located near the Halveti tekke in the center of the city. The house was part of the complex of the tekke that was used by the same family, but as it grew large in number, the Shehu family retreated and erected another building near the existing one. It was built in the XVIII century and had many supplementary objects, but during the 1950s the complex was destroyed along with many others. Later constructions, such as the Theranda Hotel, the Post Office and the Bank (built around the 1930s) hid the house from view, and today it cannot be seen from the street. The house has a flat symmetrical shape with a veranda in the middle. Later an oriel window made of wood and surrounded by wooden fences were added to the veranda. The object is a two-storey building, and its entrance is directed to the south. In the ground floor is the hall, to which a sofa was added during the restoration in the XIX century as this was common with this kind of houses. The elements dominating the façade are the oriel window made of wood which is on the southern side over the entrance, and the long-reaching eaves of the roof which are supported by wood brackets. The object has considerable dimensions and is rich in wood-carved elements. In the course of time, the owners have undertaken interventions inside and outside the building, considerably damaging its authenticity. The Grazhda Palace In the old Palace quarter, on the flat part of the city, stands the house of the Grazhda family, built in the XVIII century and renovated and adapted later in the XIX century. Initially, the house had an administrative function (The Palace of Bejler Bey), and later was used for residential purposes. In the garden, on the eastern side, is the summer kitchen which keeps many original requisites of the time. The Grazhda Palace is is an example of localoriental architecture. The building has a symmetric rectangular shape with a veranda in the middle, but in the course of time the veranda was closed in and the object was divided in two. Another floor was added to it, and the entrance (hall), as well as the decorations, faces 136

137 the garden. The decorations on the front part are characteristic, with floral elements. The interior of the building is rich with ethnographic elements. Woodcarvings are widespread in the house and were realised with special dedication and skill. The roof is hipped, covered with traditional roof tiles and the chimneys, elaborated as well, protrude from the roof in a circular shape. The House of the Shehzade Family The house of Musa Efendi Shehzade lies in the flat part of the city, on the old Saraji Street, and it was built at the end of the XVIII century. In the XIX century, the house underwent a thorough renovation, especially in the interior, while in the XX century some interventions enclosed the hall in the ground floor on the northern-eastern side of the building and the protruded alcove on the second floor as well. The house belongs to the category of residential houses with a veranda and a non-symmetrical second floor. The interior is rich in ethnographic elements. It is worthwhile to point out the decorated chimneys on the ground floor and the two chimneys on the second floor. Woodcarvings are abundant, especially distinct in the ceilings, closets, and the closets built in the walls etc. On the main façade, on the eastern side, are wood tympani with six-pointed stars in the middle that are characteristic for other houses in the city as well. 137

138 In the middle of the XX century, when the property was divided between owners, the garden was divided in half, and another object was built covering the façade of the house. In 1999, the owner poured reinforced concrete on the roof which deformed the protruded alcove. After the 1980s, the house was not used anymore as a residence. The Old Stone Bridge The old stone bridge is in the old center of the city. The Lumbardhi (Bistrica) River divides the city of Prizren in half, and this is why bridges used to have special importance in the development of commerce and life in general. Many bridges were built over the Lumbardhi River of Prizren in the course of time, but this bridge, which turned into a symbol of the city, is beyond doubt the most beautiful, functional, and imposing. No records have been found on its construction, but based on the typology of the bridges it is correct to say that it might have been built at the end of the XV century. The old bridge has three arches; the middle arch being the biggest, while the side arches are smaller and not similar which makes the bridge unsymmetrical. During the reconstruction of the Remzi Ademi Street in the 1950s, the appearance of the bridge was changed because the arch on the right (northern side) was closed to allow for the road extension. Even though with a deformed view, the bridge carried out its mission until 1979, when the catastrophic floods in Prizren destroyed it entirely. Because of the fact that the bridge had special importance for Prizren, and its inhabitants were emotionally connected to it, a decision was taken to rebuild it. The work started 138

139 immediately with the analysis of the documentation and the project design, and the bridge was rebuilt in 1982 with the arch on the right side. The Stone Fountain of Beledije The Beledije Fountain, otherwise known as the Tabakhana Fountain, is one of the oldest fountains of Prizren, built in the second half of the XIX century and beginning of the XX century. Its location was in front of the old Parliament building (Beledije) and near the Mustafa Pasha Mosque (ruined in 1952). When the road was widened and paved in 1963, the fountain was moved to the center of the city, near the Museum of the League of Prizren in Dëshmorët Square (former 17 November). The fountain has the shape of a rectangular prism and is made of stones carved in the shape of blocks. Over the profiled crown at the end of the main part a crossed arch runs on all the four sides, and above is a semi-spherical stone to distinguish it from the original stone which had a pyramidal shape. Even the original shells for conveying water have disappeared and another one was made of concrete and small stone cubes. On the front part (southern part) the spring has shallow profiling and inside is the portal niche where the inscription should have been but which is unfortunately missing. 139

140 In 1925, on the front arch above the crown is the second inscription Sud Opstina Prizren 1925 god (Court-Commune of Prizren - year 1925). A similar inscription is on the Stone Fountain which is located in front of the Sinan Pasha Mosque. When the fountain was moved to this place, a water canal was formed which circulated along the square. But after a small period of time the spring went out of function; even though very elegant, the spring stands alone in a new environment. The Old Stone Bridge on the Lumbardhi Gorge A stone bridge is spanning the Lumbardhi River in the picturesque environment of its gorge, 4 km away from Prizren, on the right side of the road to Prevallë. It is otherwise called the bridge of kërk bunari (40 wells) because of the vicinity of the wells that supply the city with water. This single arch bridge was built on the axis of the old road that connected Prizren 140

141 with Skopje through the Sharri Mountains and the Vardar Valley. For a long time, commerce and other connections between Prizren and Skopje were maintained through this bridge even though it was not very suitable. Following the construction of the new Prizren-Brezovicë road from , the old bridge lost its previous function, and since then the bridge was left at the mercy of time. So far no inscription about this bridge has been detected, and this is why the exact construction date and the builder are not known. However, based on its construction technique it is possible to observe similarities with the stone bridge in the center of the city, which makes us believe that this bridge should be from the XV century. The bridge is a single arch supported on the two rocky banks of the river. It was built with river pebbles, while the twofold arch is made of carved stones. When communication over the bridge was denser, both sides of the bridge were filled in through an intervention and so both of them became less steep. These fillings can be easily seen at first sight. They were made with stones as well but with a less elaborate technique than the original part. On both sides the bridge has two bulwarks of carved stones. The bridge is: about 20 m long, 3.5 m wide, and 6 m high, measured from the water level to the arch. The Hydroelectric Plant In the beautiful environment ofthe Lumbardhi gorge, 2.5 km from Prizren, is the Prizren hydroelectric plant. The picturesque facility was built between 1926 and 1928 with citizen contribution and bank loans. The construction works ended on 8 November The building had all the modern elements of the time: the dam, equipment for cleaning water from waste, a canal, equipment for carrying water to the turbines and a 160kWh power station. Because of the large demand for electric power, a sec- 141

142 ond power station with the same capacity was installed in Following the amortisation of the equipment and the insufficient capacity the plantt lost its initial function. On the initiative of the Institute of the Museum Monuments in Kosovo (IMMK), the plant was converted into a museum, which was inaugurated on 8 November The object is not very large; on the ground floor is the big annex where the two turbines and other key equipment were placed, while the other room housed the equipment for transmitting the electricity. In the upper floor was the engineer room that was also used by the supervisor of the hydroelectric plant. Following the conversion of the object into a museum, the room was turned into a restaurant. In the courtyard has been exhibited equipment from different hydroelectric plants in Kosovo. An Austrian architect selected the most suitable place to exploit the water flow and tried to adapt the industrial object to the environment by giving it the shape of a castle, being inspired from the castle that is situated above nearby. At the same time and on the same style were also built the other two buildings used for the transformers (substations) which distributed electric power throughout the city of Prizren. 142

143 Management Challenges in the Historic Center As one of the best protected centres, with a preserved urban-architectonic and historic nature in Kosovo, the historic center of Prizren represents also a history of efforts for the protection of its values. The first measures for the institutional protection of the historic center in general, and the monuments in particular, started after World War II, with the establishment of the relevant institutions, initially in Prishtina (in 1956) and later in Prizren (in 1967). Unfortunately, contrary to this, the degradation of the monuments and of the historic center has continued for different material and political interests. Many researches and concrete proposals for the protection and revitalization of the historic center were carried out between 1968 and 1974, when unsuccessful efforts were made also to inscribe the city in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The degradation of the historic center was aided even by the absence of a development plan for the city, which would have set forth concrete proposals in relation to the direction of development and extension of Prizren. One of the reasons why the protection of the historic center was not as effective as it should have been is the insufficient elaboration of its technical plan. The historic center, defined in 1999, in its major part covered the same areas as the area today and, besides the monuments, included entire or separate complexes with a protective status such as the Nënkala, Potokmahalla, the Fountain etc. The historic center was divided into a primary and secondary preserved area and it was displayed in a map which was used for the needs of the staff of the previous institute for the protection of monuments. The intuitive efforts of the citizens and the institutional 143

144 attention, with no specific documentation to work with more elaborate plans, couldn t lead far. However, it was an unwritten rule that in case of other constructions in the historic center, the height and the volume of the other buildings near the designed place was to be respected. One of the principles that was used and is still used today is that for each intervention in the historic center, the relevant department of the urban office in the commune requests prior approval from the relevant entity, presently the Institute for the Protection of Monuments (IPM). In 2001, the IPM was stripped of its communal competences and became an agency dependant from the Ministry of Culture. This rapidly left the IPM with no strategy, and it was not consulted anymore on several urban developments on the local level. During the process of designing the general urban plan of Prizren ( ), the IPM requested to suspend all the constructions in the area of the historic center, because this was the period when constructions were flourishing in the city and it feared that this would have a negative impact in the era. Unfortunately, this proposal was not taken into consideration. The approved plan redefines the preserved areas of the historic center of Prizren, establishing in this way the primary area, the secondary and the contact area. This was a new concept for Prizren. These areas are approximately the same with the old borders and include the largest number of monuments in the urban area. Even though this development document had abundant information on the areas and especially on the listed monuments, in the end it was a general plan and so it didn t contain details on the management of the monuments and their surrounding objects. This created even more worrying problems when the criteria and the technical conditions defined by IPM are not respected. Unfortunately this latter practice is still going on even today. In 2005 started the drafting of the conservation and development plan for the historic center of Prizren, which was officially finished and approved in 2009 as an urban regulatory plan. This document is one of the most important documents compiled until today for the historic center of Prizren, and represents one of the only documents to be referred to by many institutions from both levels of the government. The plan offers special details on the architectonic treatment which were missing in the previous plans. Even though it was officially approved as an urban regulatory plan, it is elaborated more than a typical urban regulatory plan as requested by law. However, considering the fact that it takes into account the specifics of the historic center, the existing plan needs and offers the possibility to be revised and supplemented and updated with new information. For example, the initial plan divided into areas (I,II,III) needs to be furthered detailed because in most cases it is general, creating uncertainties about which objects should be preserved and which shouldn t. This creates uncertainties especially for steep territories and for the territories surrounding the monuments. Similarly, the information available on the condition of the objects in general is not the same, because this information is old and doesn t respond to the changes of circumstances since the time when the plan was approved. 144

145 Even though the existing conservation plan doesn t have such a mandate, it would be appropriate to establish in the future a managing structure which would have everyday control of the condition of the historic zone. The structure would be good to have representatives from the central and local level. The dysfunction of the construction inspectorate at the communal level, and especially the absence of cultural heritage inspectors (from the central level) presents today one of the most critical links in the dysfunction and disrespect of the rules for the protection of the historic area of Prizren. The value of the conservation plan, even though it is one of the best plans our institutions have drafted so far, is decreasing because of disrespect for the permission required when carrying out works. The protection of the historic zone of Prizren is presented to us today more as a challenge in the enforcement of the applied laws than as challenge in the implementation of the urban plans, which, nonetheless, following the official approval on the local level, similarly present an applied law for the institutions and the citizens. References The Archive of the Institute for the Protection of Monuments in Prizren, Marin Barleti no. 1, Prizren, Republic of Kosovo. Tel: +381 (29) , qrtkpz@hotmail.com The Conservation and Development Plan for the Historic Zone of the City of Prizren CHwB Kosovo Office, Payton City / R. Zogovic no. 8, Prishtina, Republic of Kosovo. Tel (38) , Prizren in 360 steps, the communal website for the promotion of the city of Prizren Tourism guide on the internet: PRIZREN In YourPocket com/data/download/prizren.pdf 145

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147 OHRID The City of Centuries by Goran Patchev For many it is a city of light, city of cultural heritage, Balkan Jerusalem or a living museum, but mostly it is a city in which are born, grow up, develop and live hundreds of generations of residents for whom it is just hometown. With its prominent cultural and historical treasures in Ohrid we have the opportunity to get to know the past life of this region. As lively and populated city with a great variety of tourist offer, the city pulses in modern trends. With proper and sustainable management of natural resources and the integrated protection of cultural heritage will ensure a better life for future generations. The traces of human existence in these areas, dating from prehistoric times, through traces of construction throughout the historic continuity of all eras and civilizations, numerous artefacts and written documents, numerous examples of the movable cultural heritage witness the very intensive life in these areas the man has never left, making advantage of the given location of the lake. Cultural values on this territory, with emphasis on the spirituality, were foundations for the establishment of a large Christian centre even at the dawn of the Christianity. Introduction Curving around a small bay at the northeastern corner of the Ohrid Lake, Ohrid has been a cultural and spiritual center since antiquity, taking advantage of the favourable natural conditions and the protection provided by the hill overlooking the bay. Lake Ohrid itself is a rare and very old clearwater lake, a center of biodiversity and fed by numerous springs in its bed, adding to the spiritual value of the Lake. In the Byzantine era the missionary saints Clement and Naum settled in Ohrid, and the town became a centre of monasticism and learning, its influence spreading 147

148 throughout the Slavic Orthodox world. At times the Archbishopric of Ohrid stretched as far as the Adriatic and the Aegean. The houses of Ohrid s old town are artistically arranged on the hillside. In Ottoman times Christians were confined to this area within the city wall, and the need to make the best use of the available space inspired some creative architectural responses. The city architecture of Ohrid takes a particular place in the cultural heritage as a result of which the particular type of the oriental city house built during the 18th, 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is better preserved than in other cities. 148

149 The folklore builders had built these houses under the influence of the Ottoman and Byzantic building traditions. Because of this, it is no surprise that the great French architect La Corbusier in his Collection of Works dedicates particular attention to the Macedonian city house and its facades, balconies and interiors when he writes about the city architecture of the Balkan. In some of the legends is said that in Ohrid have 365 churches, actually known more than forty churches or remnants of churches. One of the most impressive is the Holy Sophia former cathedral (During Tsar Samuel s reign ), built in the centre of Ohrid s old town, upon the foundations of an old Christian structure and some very well preserved frescoes. Higher up the hill is the Church of the Holy Mother of God Peribleptos (Most Glorious). This complex also includes a gallery of icons and is near the recently renovated Building of the former Museum of Slavic Literacy now the seat of the Macedonian Orthodox Church Ohrid Archbishopric, Debar - Kichevo Diocese. Restored monastery of St. Clement and St. Panteleimon located at Plaošnik, on the wooded slopes below Tsar Samoil s fortress. When talking about Ohrid as a centre of the region which is a city-museum itself, one must bear in mind the fact that there is a museum whose origins trace a long way back in the history. Namely, more than centuries before the foundation of the British Museum in London (1753) and Louvre in Paris (1793), there was an Archbishopric Museum in the church of Holy Mother of God Perivleptos in Ohrid, which was one of the first and probably the oldest one in Europe that existed for 400 years, in the period The existence of the museum in Ohrid nearly a millennium ago was confirmed by the existence of a seal dating from

150 The museum in Ohrid is established in 1951 as a successor of the archiepiscopal museum. Some of the most significant objects which are kept in this museum are: the Slavic and Greek handwriting, the antique reliefs and sculptures, numismatic collection and many other movable museum objects. In 1979 and in 1980, Ohrid and Lake Ohrid were among the first sites worldwide which were accepted as a World Heritage by UNESCO. In fact, Ohrid is one of only 28 sites that are part of UNESCO s World Heritage that are both Cultural and Natural sites. Historical Importance The shores of Lake Ohrid have been inhabited since prehistoric times. Archaeological findings speak of settlements form the Neolithic period (the early Stone Age) years B.C. Neolithic settlements rich in archaeological material have been discovered dating from this period in the level part of Ohrid in its northern suburb of Dolno Trnovo. Archeological excavations certify that prehistoric pile dwellings existed in the area of present-day Ohrid 5000 years B.C., implying that the origins of the town are as ancient as 7000 years. 150

151 According to historical sources, the earliest known inhabitants of the Ohrid Lake region were Brigians, Ohrygians and Enhelians, the latter dominating for a long time. According to Herodotus and Apollodorus, they were not Illyrians but were their closest neighbours. Later on, the Desaretes are mentioned to inhabit this area and the town of Lychinidos (Ohrid s antique name) as the capital of Desaretia. In the first millennium B.C. there existed for several centuries a powerful settlement, whose name is unknown today, in the vicinity of today s international airport, some dozen kilometers to the north of Ohrid. Rich archaeological findings have been discovered there: golden masks, sandals and bracelets, bronze craters, etc. These have come from the princely tombs in the widely known necropolis of Trebeniste. The existence of the ancient town of Lychnidos is linked to the legend of the Phoenician Cadmus who, banished from Thebes, in Beoetia, fled to the Enhelians and founded the town of Lychnidos on the shores of Lake Ohrid. Around the middle of the 4th century BC, Lychnidos and the settlements on the shores of the lake were seized by Philip II of Macedonia. After conquering these regions in 148 B.C., the Romans built the Via Egnatia, linking present-day Durrës with Salonica and Constantinople via Lychnidos. With the spread of Christianity, which began to penetrate these regions towards the end of the 3rd century, the classical shrines were gradually destroyed and replaced by monumental early Christian churches, fragments of which have been discovered in several spots in Ohrid and its surroundings. The first Christian missionary to come to Lychnidos was Erasmus of Antioch. Records say that in the 5th century this town was the seat of the bishops of Lycnidos. In the 6th century, when Lychnidos was part of the Byzantine Empire, the Slavs began crossing the Danube and penetrating the Balkan Peninsula. A Slavic tribe called Brsjaci settled in the region of Lychnidos. The name Ohrid is first mentioned in a protocol issued by the Assembly of Constantinople in 879. It is believed to have been derived from the Slavic words - vo hrid - on a hill - since the old town of Ohrid stands on the crest of a hill. Kliment and Naum, the two best-known disciples of the missionary brothers Cyril and Method of Thessaloniki, came to Ohrid after the failure of their mission and their banishment from Moravia. Kliment was the first to come (886) and Naum joined him fourteen years later in (893) in the district of Kutmicevica, which borders on the present- 151

152 day of FYROM, Albania and Greece and which comprises Ohrid and now vanished towns of Devol and Glavenica. With their arrival, Ohrid developed into a leading center of Slavic cultural and literary activity. Kliment spent thirty years among the Macedonian Slavs. The first Ohrid literary school was founded at his monastery church of St. Pantalejmon in Ohrid, built in 893. The 3500 pupils who came out of this school spread the Slavic script, culture, art and liturgic singing across several Slav lands as far as Kiev in mediaeval Russia. By the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th century the Slavic literacy, spirituality and culture were founded. Ohrid was one of its main centers and has distinguished merits in the spreading of the Slavic spirituality in Europe and across the world, especially in the process of evangelism of the Slavic Christian East which actually begins on the shores of Lake Ohrid with the engagement of St. Kliment and St. Naum. It was spread through the Bulgarian Preslav to Kiev and Moscow, from there to the Far East in Asia and to the coast of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Long after the death of Kliment in 916 and Naum in 910, the Ohrid literary school continued to be a source of manuscripts invaluable for Slavic studies and the history of art. This school began work on national soil in the 9th century and was a loyal adherent of the Glagolitic alphabet. Some of the most valuable Slavic manuscripts dating from the period up to the 12th century, when the Glagolitic alphabet was supplanted by the Cyrillic are attributed to it. Samuel s Empire had its genesis in the Ohrid region. Around the middle of the 10th century, a Slav prince from the Ohrid region, Nikola, and his sons David, Aron, Moses and Samuel rose first against Bulgarian rule in 976 and created the first medievial Macedonian state. Its limits were constantly extended during Tsar Samuel s reign which lasted for nearly four decades, until they reached as far as the rivers Danube and Sava, the Bay of Corinth and the Adriatic Sea. During the reign of Samuel ( ) and his successors, Gavrilo Radomir and Jovan Vladislav until 1018, both before and after Samuel s time and of his successors the fortress was destroyed and rebuilt again. After the transformation of Samuel s state into a political and ecclesiastical seat, Ohrid became a real mediaeval metropolis. After Samuel s defeat on Mount Belasica in 1014, the Byzantine Emperor Basil II captured of his soldiers and after blinding them, but leaving each hundredth soldiers with one eye, he returned them to Samuel. Samuel s successors were unable to control the vast empire and soon afterwards, in 1018, it suffered total defeat. Emperor Basil II, on capturing Ohrid, ordered the city ramparts to be demolished and Samuel s imperial family was taken prison. The patriarchate Ohrid was reduced to the rank of an archbishopric. The period of the archbishopric, whose jurisdiction extended over a vast territory from the Danube to the walls of the city of Thessaloniki and the Adriatic Sea, was a particular chapter in the history of mediaeval Ohrid. Wishing to retain its influence over the Macedonian Slavs, the Court at 152

153 Constantinople appointed as head of the Ohrid archbishopric the most influential and capable church dignitaries: writers and philosophers, learned theologians and poets. Thus Ohrid developed into a prosperous town which attracted some of the best-known painters and architects of the period. In the 11th century, Leo, one of the most outstanding supporters of the Orthodox Church, was appointed Archbishop of Ohrid and ordered St. Sophia (Holy Wisdom) Cathedral to be reconstructed and decorated according to his ideas. After the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, the archbishops of Ohrid were appointed from among local church dignitaries who eventually proclaimed complete independence of the Archbishopric of Ohrid, having found legal ground for this in Justinian s legal acts. This enables the archbishop of Ohrid, Demetrius Homatian, a distinguished mediaeval orator and writer - author of the Short Life of Kliment of Ohrid to crown the Byzantine despot, Theodore Comnenus, as emperor despite the violent opposition of the patriarch of Constantinople. The Archbishopric of Ohrid had its patrons and its own specific cults and later sponsored its own painter s workshops. The founders of Ohrid s churches were not only nobles from abroad, but included local churchmen and abbots of the monastery of St. Kliment. The cult of Kliment and Naum was particularly strong and both are portrayed in the most conspicuous areas of the church walls. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Ohrid was expanded to include new territories in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. In the 16th century, the Archbishopric extended its authority to the Orthodox colonies on Malta, Apulia, Calabria, Sicily, Venice and Dalmatia. The Archbishopric of Ohrid was abolished and incorporated into the Patriarchy of Constantinople in 1767 at the order of the Turkish Sultan 153

154 Mustapha III. It was restored only in 1958 at the Second Church and People s Council in Ohrid, and now bears the name of the Macedonian Orthodox Church. The Ottoman Turks held Ohrid from 1395 to 1912, more than 500 years. At first the Turkish sultans helped the Archbishopric of Ohrid to expand its jurisdiction. But this changed after 1466, when a number of distinguished citizens of Ohrid had assisted an uprising launched against Turkish domination by the legendary Albanian war leader Skenderbey. As a consequence, Archbishop Dorotheus and a number of churchmen and wealthy local men were forcibly removed from Ohrid on the Sultan s orders, and died as prisoners. At the turn of the 19th century, Ohrid was a powerful economic and cultural center. Its leather workshops exported their goods to several European cities, Constantinople, Thesssaloniki, Leipzig and Vienna, there was a fresh upstage of building activity and woodcarvers and painters flocked to the city from the surroundings of Debar. In the wake of abolition of the Archbishopric of Ohrid and its incorporation into the Patriarchies of Constantinople in 1767, there was a period of Hellenising influence on Ohrid s cultural life. Resistance to Greek spiritual domination became particularly vigorous following the nomination in 1860 of the notorious Bishop Melentius as Metropolitan of Ohrid. The first to rise against Greek cultural influence was a prominent Macedonian educator, Dimitrie Miladinov, a native of Struga and a teacher 154

155 of the Macedonian poets Grigor Prlicev and Rajko Zinzifov. He was poisoned in a prison in Constantinople together with his brother, the poet Konstanin Miladinov. In Ohrid the movement of progressive nationalist Macedonians against Greek influence came under the leadership of the poet Grigor Prlicev, author of the epics Serdarot and Skenderbay. After his epic Serdarot had won a prize on a competition in Athens in 1860, he received an offer to go to study at Oxford, but turned it down and returned to his native Ohrid. The struggle against Greek cultural influence triumphed in the end and, by decree of Sultan Abd Al-Aziz passed in 1869, Greek schools in Ohrid were closed down. In the honor of the great literate, a memorial museum was built in the old part of Ohrid - the house of Grigor Prlicev. In the latter half of the 19th century, neighboring Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia fought for domination over the territory. Revolutionary activity to prepare the people for an armed uprising took an organized form in the district of Ohrid in On the night of August 2, 1903, a large-scale rebellion known as the Ilinden Uprising was staged with the active support of the population throughout Macedonia. Its impact, as subsequent developments were to show, was felt far beyond the region. The Ottoman Turkish military authorities quickly reacted with heavy reprisals, and the Ohrid branch of the revolutionary organization ordered the evacuation of the rural population to the mountains of the region of Rashanec (northeast of Ohrid). They endured the onslaughts of the far superior Turkish armed forces until the end of August of the same year, when Rashanec became the common grave of a large number of women, children and old people as well as insurgents. Those who visited Ohrid in the period after the Insurrection came to the conclusion that Ohrid was neglected, only occasional remnants of its celebrated past still existed, and the town people were exhausted and in deep misery and fear. The social and economic situation in the region of Ohrid deteriorated. As a result, during the first decade of the XX century, a great number of people went to America searching for a job. One record shows that in 1907 alone 3,630 citizens of Ohrid went to America hoping to find a job. When Ottoman Turkish rule finally came to an end in 1912, Ohrid became part of of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, between 1918 and The period between the two World wars was marked by greater changes 155

156 in the structure of the old city central area by the construction of bigger facilities in academic style, i.e. neoclassic style features. These buildings are dominant among the small apartment block structure and the architecture which is different from the architecture of the old city. Under the influence of the European architecture, and after the long period of Ottoman oppression, this area was also marked by the influences from Europe. After World War II, (Ohrid was liberated on November 7, 1944), the industrialization of the cities started, as well as rapid development and renovation. This period marked the modest conservation efforts of the most significant profane facilities in Ohrid. The independence of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (September 8, 1991) renewed the sovereignty of the country and the international recognition imposed some preconditions for direct participation in all international associations and organizations in the field of protection of cultural and natural heritage. It provided efficient implementation of the international standards in all areas of protection, as well as all entities competent for maintaining the region as world cultural heritage. Ohrid has become an important tourist resort, made significant steps in the development of tourism industry and now has an extensive network of educational, cultural, medical and other institutions. 156

157 What Famous Persons Say About Ohrid The Fortress of Ohrid has a pentagonal shape, is built of curved stone and is situated on a high rock. Its total length is steps. There is an inner fortress that is directed towards north, with walls high 40 yardstick, in the outer fortress situated on a hill. No man can be compared to the creator of the Ohrid Fortress. Evliya Çelebi (Turkish traveller, 1670) One can see every part of the Lake Ohrid from that place, except for its most distant southwest part, where Ohrid is situated on a very narrow band, the centuries old Ahrida, that thanks to its hill and its fortress, situated along the lake coast, is much alike Geneva, situated along the Lake Léman. Such comparison made by visitors is provoked as well by the similar blue and transparent colour of the waters, which is typical for both lakes. If one should decide which one of the two is clearer, then one would say Lake Ohrid, because, as in Rhone near Geneva, one can notice the fish at the bottom of the lake even from the windows of the monastery. Doctor Ami Bue (French traveller, 1836/38) Give me these wings to wear, oh, let me soar Speed homeward to the lush land I adore To cross paths with our fair southern land 157

158 To see Ohrid, look on Struga again. There the rose-fingered dawn brightens my soul There the sunset keeps wooded hills aglow There nature s splendor plentiful gifts yields A mighty harvest gathers in the fields And the clear lake s whiteness widen s the view Darkened by the wind, it turns hues of blue, Look upon these mountains, there divine plains Behold their beauty which forever remains. Konstantin Miladinov (Macedonian poem writer, 1860) What was there to charm me, succeeded in it, captured me, and I couldn t leave the coast of the Ohrid Lake for hours, for days, for days and nights. Branislav Nušić (Yugoslavian writer, 1894) The area of Ohrid, when approaching it by ship from the monastery St. Naum, can be compared with the most beautiful sights in the world. The violet pyramids of Albanian mountains on the west hang one over another. Gentle breeze slightly stirs the surface of the lake where the white clouds are reflected. Gradually, the white hilly town comes up to the surface of the blue water with the ruins of Tsar Samuil fortress at the top. Churches, domes, towers emerge one after another. The white walls of the houses, red and grey roofs, yellowish rocks, they are all compatible with the clear green colour of the poplar trees, fruits and willows. The shore looks like a place in bloom; it is full of oleanders, wisters, cypresses, pink bushes and enormously great number of fig trees. Stojan Pribićević (American journalist, 1905) You can see from the balcony or feel and see from the high window what it is, what it looks like, the main goal of this architecture and the biggest need of these people: the air and the sun, and the beauty of the view of the Lake and the landscapes around it. Ivo Andrić (writer, winner of the Nobel Prize for literature, 1955) One could say one has a part of a sea torn from the ocean and thrown among the unreachable mountains surrounding it from everywhere. Lake Ohrid can be called Macedonian freshwater sea and not only because of the warmth of the blue colour that is more vivid than the sky blueness. Academician PhD Siniša Stanković (Yugoslavian biologist, 1959) The frescos from Ohrid are unique. This art, above all, captures people with it strength and manhood. (Academician Viktor Lazarev (Soviet byzantologist, 1961)) I visited the churches in Ohrid, there are around thirty. They are proofs that there was no gap between the Byzantine church art, Ravenna and Sicily, on one part and the Italian renaissance on the other. Ohrid is a significant bridge of the European art. Sir Herbert Read (British art historian, 1961) It is impossible to study Byzantine art without visiting Macedonia... Looking at the frescos in St. Sophia in Ohrid, the manner in which the unknown artists achieved the visual artistic solutions within the compositions is the 158

159 most noticeable. It is totally unjustified to talk about the existence of a pure Byzantine school. David Talbot Rice (British byzantologist, 1961) I really came to Ohrid in 1945 because of the frescos... The West does not know our renaissance at all. The West did not for long apprehend the Slavic national contribution to the contemporary arts. Ilja Erenburg (Soviet writer, 1965) Ohrid has numerous old churches. There is a church that existed long before the seventh century, before the arrival of Clement. It was built below the high tower of the fortress, and was turned into mosque during the Turkish governance. This church has been reconstructed several years ago. You can find the tomb of Clement on its southern part. Clement built the tomb himself and was buried there on March 26 th 916. Tang Kuang Si (Chinese publicist, writer and translator, 1986) What is actually happening in the archeological sites in Ohrid is actually fascinating. A real renaissance of the Macedonian archeology and art related to Ohrid. Academician PhD Dejan Medaković (art historian, 2002) These are just a few of the many impressions about Ohrid. They could be of great help for one to understand Ohrid and its beauties, complexity, values and their exciting unity. Important Archaeological and Architectural Monuments The urban matrix of the old town of Ohrid abounds with numerous archaeological sites, spiritual centers and specific residential architecture characteristic of these territories during the nineteenth century and recent architecture created under the influence of European neoclassicism and other modern influences. Ohrid houses are oriented southeast on hilly terrain and characterized by quality insolation and a nice view to the lake. Their spatial organization is common to all, divided vertically on winter and summer part. On the ground floor were stored firewood, wine, brandy, and wintertime treats food. Upper floors are with flange outward from the main walls erker toward the street and where everyday family functions were unfolding. Top floors are representative and richly decorated closed çardak. They are with the most wide space and provide a wonderful view of the lake. They use for reception of guests, held celebrating baptisms and other major family events. Directly related to the fortunes of the lake, fishermen had specific types of 159

160 houses. Entrance from the street, but also by the lake, where storage fishing equipment and prepare fish for sale. Feature of this city are and the so-called dark streets, tunnels covered by the upper floors of the houses. Within the boundaries of the protected monuments are declared for Cultural Heritage a total of 23 Christian sacred buildings, 74 profane buildings, 7 structures of Islamic architecture and 10 archaeological sites. Prehistory and Ancient Period The favorable geographic and climate conditions and the contact with the waterside and the fresh-water lake rich in fish, as one of the crucial pre-requirements for life, have contributed to the creation of palafitte pile dwellings settlements, as well as dwellings located near the lakeside. This can be witnessed by the 15 recorded archeological sites from the prehistoric period on the territory of this region. In 1997, the first underwater archaeological explorations in the country were performed at the site Plocha Michov Grad, in the Bay of the Bones, along the south shore of the semi peninsula Gradishte, close to the village Peshtani. At a depth of 3 to 5m, numerous wooden piles were discovered attached to the bottom of the lake and numerous movable archaeological materials with chronology towards the end of the Bronze and the beginning of Iron Age. In the period many underwater researches were performed at the site during which 9102 piles were discovered, numbered, measured and positioned. Based on the remeasurements of the surface area of the settlement, it was determined that it had spread on a surface of about 8500 m 2. It was built on a platform of wooden piles attached to the bottom of the lake. It was established that the closest pile to the northern shore of the bay is at ca. 12m in the lake 160

161 implying that it is the pile of a pantone (movable) bridge that connected the settlement with the dry land. The site Plocha Michov Grad within the Bay of Bones, today, is an attractive museum complex with a number of contents: rebuilt palafitte settlement above the lake, Roman castrum that was preserved, restored and presented at the highest plateau of the Gradishte Hill, an accessible facility with museum exhibition and facility for realization of underwater tourism. The Ancient Theatre The Antique theatre of Ohrid was built in 200 B.C. and is the only Hellenistic theatre in the country as the other three in Scupi, Stobi and Heraklea are from Roman times. It is unclear how many people the original theater used to seat, as only the lower section still exists. The open theater has a perfect location: the two hills that surround it keep it protected from winds that could interfere with acoustics during performances. During Roman times, the theater was also used for gladiator fights. However, since the theater was also a site of executions of Christians by the Romans, it rapidly turned to a highly disliked site by the locals. In fact, as a result of this dislike, the theater was abandoned and buried by the locals after the demise of the Roman Empire. Fortunately, this allowed for most of the structure to be well preserved, only to be uncovered accidentally in the 1960 s. Namely, during construction work around some of the houses in the area, large stone blocks with carvings of the Greek god Dionysius and the muses came to light, which led archaeologists to believe that a Greek theater (Dyonisius and the muses were related to the performance arts) must have been located nearby. Archaeological excavations were performed by the National Museum of Ohrid quickly located the theater, which was later adjusted to the needs of the Roman society. During these first excavations, among other finds, there was also the famous miniature theatrical mask made of ivory. The archaeological explorations in 2001 gave very valuable results; an 161

162 epigraphic monument was discovered representing a basic display of the name of the city Lychnidos, as well as 280 graves and grave constructions and the remains of two churches - one in the southwestern part, and the other in the northeastern part of the site. Since the late 1980 s, the theater has again become a highly popular venue of public performances, such as plays, concerts, operas, ballet performances as part of the Ohrid Summer Festival. The Ohrid Fortress of Tzar Samuel The oldest historical records of the Ohrid Fortress are mentioned by the classical historian Livy in the 3rd century B.C. when it was the fortress of the town of Lychnidos. A more detailed description of the fortress was made by the chronicler Malcus (Malala) and dates from 478 A.D. The Ohrid Fortress of Tzar Samuel has been described by a chronicler as a mighty stronghold that even Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, was unable to take. The Ohrid Fortress is one of the largest mediaeval fortifications to be preserved in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. With its massive walls and ramparts, it occupies the entire summit of the hill of Ohrid. The hilly pert of the town was protected on all sides save the south, which faces the lake, by towers and high walls three kilometers in length, stretching as far as the harbor. Entrance to the town was gained by three gates, of which only the Upper Gate has been preserved. The Fortress, in addition to serving the function of defense against enemies, was also an inhabited area and has come to be known as Samuel s Fortress. Following the epochal archeological excavations done by the archeologist Pasko Kuzman, it is 162

163 definitely certified that on the terrain of the Samuel Fortress on the hilly part of Ohrid, several decades of centuries are being connected in three periods: Pre-Samuel s Period, Samuel s Period and Post-Samuel s Period of the history of Ohrid. The Early Christian Episcopal Church In the hilly part of Ohrid, near the site known as Plaosnik (on old Slavic means flatten place on a hill), there is a monumental early Christian church. Its systematic excavation began in 1961 and was completed in The shrine was built and decorated in the 5th century at a time when the town of Lychnidos was an important Early Christian Episcopal center. Polyconched and built in the form of a trefoil, it was erected on the foundations of an older classical structure. Mosaic compositions with figurative floral and zoomorphic motives have been unearthed in the central part and in the baptistery of this Early Christian church. 163

164 Roughly one hundred square meters of this large complex of mosaics have been preserved. The vaulted ceilings of the church were also ornamented with mosaics, and these were on a gold background. The presence of such splendor points to this as being the seat of the Bishopric of Lychnidos. Systematic excavations have shown that the church was of vast dimensions. Unknown artists decorated it with magnificent mosaics. Churches and Monasteries The Church of St.Sophia The cathedral church Saint Sophia is one of the oldest and most magnificent Christian temples in the country. The church is dedicated to St. Sophia, that is, to Christ as divine wisdom. It was built on the foundations of an ancient sacral construction in the time after the great mission of St. Cyril and St. Metodij, when the Macedonian Slavs accepted the Christianity on the Slavic language. The church St. Sophia, most probably served as a cathedral in the time of tsar Samuil, who, by the end of the 10th century, transferred his throne from Prespa to Ohrid. The external appearance of St. Sophia, which for a long time was the cathedral church of the Archbishopric of Ohrid, is in a shape of the letter 164

165 T with a two-side steep and transversely joined roof. The church originally had a main cupola, side galleries and a large belltower, above the west facade, all of which were later destroyed. The two little domes above the outer narthex as well as the narthex itself and the first - floor gallery were built at the beginning of the 14th century. Today the church is a three-naved basilica with a triangular altar apse and semi circular apses in the diaconicon and the prothesis. It is built with baked bricks and mortar and stone and mortar. Above the diaconicon and the prothesis there are two small chapels from the Comnenus period in the 12th century. Later the upper section of the narthex was built and at the same time in the middle of the 14th century the Chapel of the St. John the Forerunner was built. The external narthex with its gallery on the west facade of the church was built in 1313 at the time of Archbishop Gregorius, as is stated in an inscription in the bricks running the length of the facade. It is considered to be a masterpiece of mediaeval architecture. The archeological complex of Plaošnik St. Kliment s and St. Panteleimon is a monastery situated on Plaošnik. It is attributed to Clement of Ohrid, a disciple of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. Archaeologists have come to believe that the monastery was the site where the first students of the Glagolitic alphabet (used to translate the Bible into Old Church Slavonic) were taught. This is an Early Christian Episcopal Church that was excavated between 1961 and The church was constructed in the 5th century and erected in the shape of a trefoil. Mosaics, which are a part of the church, were excavated and preserved. This is considered as one of the most important archaeological locations in the country. The monastery stands on a hill which is now known as Plaošnik overlooking Lake Ohrid. St. Clement built his monastery on a restored 165

166 church and a Roman basilica of five parts (the remains of the basilicas can still be seen outside the monastery). Sources say that St. Clement was not satisfied with the size of the church and therefore built a new one over it and assigned St. Panteleimon as its patron saint. Clement personally built a crypt inside the monastery in which he was buried after his death in 916, his tomb still exists today. From15th to 17th century the monastery was ruined and turned into mosque few times (called Imaret Mosque). Apart from the monastery s many reconstructions during the Ottoman Empire, it has recently undergone extensive reconstruction and excavation. Reconstruction started on 2000 and the physical church was fully reconstructed by Most of St. Clement s relics were returned to the church. A partially ruined bell tower was restored on the right side of the monastery and the floors of the interior of the church have been reconstructed with marble. Reconstruction was carried out by hand using materials used to build the original church in order to preserve the original spirituality of the monastery. Machines were only used to polish the interior during the reconstruction of the monastery. On October 10, 2007, a depot of approximately 2,383 Venetian coins was discovered by archaeologists while excavating the monastery. The coins are of special significance because they indicate that Ohrid 166

167 The Church of St. John the Theologian at Kaneo and Venice were commercially linked. As the monastery is the most sacred of all the churches in the fyrom, thousands of Macedonian orthodox Christians gather at Plaošnik during large religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas to celebrate and take part in the liturgies. Built and decorated towards the end of the end of 13th century, the donor of the church and the painter of its frescoes are unknown. The church s architecture is of great relevance to a study of Ohrid s mediaeval monuments as it is a highly successful combination of Byzantine and Armenian elements. The church stands on one of the finest spots on the lake shore, on a high cliff over looking the one - time fishing settlements of Kaneo (a latin word wich means in Macedonian - spoken in the fyrom bleech or sparkle) in the old part of Ohrid. St. Jovan at Kaneo, one of the landmarks of old Ohrid, was restored to its original form in the course of 1963 and 1964 when the belfry and the porch - both 19th century additions were removed. It was on that occasion that the frescoes in the dome were uncovered. The frescoes in the dome and in the altar space have been preserved although they are considerably damaged. The reason for this is that for a lengthy period between the 17th century and 19th century the church was partially ruined and was abandoned, and a large number of the frescoes were then destroyed and lost forever. 167

168 The Church Holy Mother of God Perivleptos According to an inscription on the inner wall of the narthex above the main entrance, the church was built under the name of the Holy Mother of God Most Glorious (Perivleptos) in 1295 by the Byzantine military commander, Progon Zgur, a relative of the Emperor Andronicus II Palalogus. After the church of St. Sophia had been converted into mosque, the church of the Holy Mother of God Perivleptos became the cathedral church of the Archbishopric of Ohrid. The paintings in the church of the Holy Mother of God Peribleptos mark a new chapter in mediaeval paintings. They ushered in a new trend in Byzantine art which came to be known as the Palaeologus Renaissance. They are also the earliest known works of Michael and Eutychius, distinguished mediaeval fresco painters, whose creations can be followed through nearly three decades. The church is cruciform in shape and surmounted by an octagonal - based dome decorated on the outside with cylindrical friezes. The narthex and the central part were built at the same time. It is built of brick and travertine in a masterly combination producing an extraordinarily decorative effect and at the same time an impression of perfect harmony. Indeed, the church of the Holy Mother of God - Peribleptos ranks among the most outstanding achievements of mediaeval architecture. 168

169 The Church of St. Nicola Bolnicki The Church of The Holy Mother Bolnicki The church is of interest both in terms of its architecture and its frescoes. Remains of the town walls which stretched down from Samuel s Fortress to the lakeside are to be found in the churchyard. The church has semi - circular vaulting. The belfry on its western side is unique in the fyrom and was built under the influence of architecture of the Adriatic coast. This church was first decorated in It was redecorated towards the end of the 14th and it most probably took on its present form in the 15th century. Further mural paintings were added in the 19th century. The iconostasis, richly decorated with stylized floral, fruit and bird motives was carved in 1833 and is the work of the national woodcarver Nikola Darkovski Karadzovic of Lazaropole. The Church of St. Nicola Chudotvorec Among the inhabitants of the old part of Ohird this church is well-known as St. Nikola Chudotvorec - Chelnichki because it is situated in the vicinity of St. Bogorodica - Chelnica. It was built on the remains of an early Christian temple. The church has been reconstructed and painted with frescoes during many centuries. It is listed among the rare galleries where the wall painting has been preserved in fragments in the period from the 11th to the 14th century and on. For five years, from 2000 to 2005, numerous century old fresco painting fragments were cleansed and conserved. 169

170 Islamic Monuments Hadzi Durgut (Cross) Mosque The well known Cross Mosque (Hadzi Durgut), which is considered to be located on the place of the former church St. Nedela, is the oldest mosque in Ohrid, built in In the crescent on the top of the minaret there is a small cross located there at present as well, and the legend says that when the Turks were raising the minaret, after throwing the cross in the lake, it reappeared on the top of the minaret. When they threw the cross again, the minaret crashed and when they raised it again, the cross reappeared on its position. This occurrence repeated many times until someone dreamt that the minaret will not fall down only if they do not remove the cross from the top. At that time, the Turks placed the cross in the crescent and so the minaret persists until today. Ali Pasha Mosque Ali Pasha Mosque is located in the old bazaar, near to the old plane. According to the historical data we posses and on the basis of the foundation itself from an architectural point of view, it was built late XV or at the beginning of the XVI century by the vizier Ali Pasha. According to Ohrid s vakufnama (a document in which the Islam property is listed) from 1491, it is apparent that there were palaces (sarai) and vakafi which belonged to Ali Pasha. From the previous we conclude that among the many things that Ali Pasha built, there was a mosque as well. Ottomans had a custom according to which every pasha should build a mosque in the place he was sent to. That fact is confirmed by the specificities of the mosque because Hajdar-Kadi Mosque in Bitola, Fuad- Pasha and Ali Pasha Mosque in Istanbul contain the same specificities which are immanent to Ali Pasha Mosque in Ohrid. All the mosques built between XV and XVI century are similar: they are without columns which are a specific of the first beginnings of the Ottoman s classical architecture. The roof at the cube is suppressed and the holes are very narrow, that is a characteristic of the local buildings and that speaks in contribution to the fact that its builder was some local constructor, probably from Ohrid. 170

171 With the building of an individual object next to the Ali-Pasha Mosque in 1999, during the excavation of the foundations, floor mosaics were discovered which continue under the mosque itself. The mosaics originate from the early Christian basilica, and at the same time walls of medieval sacral objects are discovered, which confirm the presumption that this was the location of the church St. Nicola. With the new archaeological further excavations a project study was conducted which envisages total conservation to the mosaics that will be presented to the public together with the new-built facility Zejnel Abedin Teke and Mosque The dervish teke from the order Halveti was built in the first half of the XVII century on the part of Zejnel Abedin Pasha as a regular mosque and a religious school (medresa). At present, as part of the monastery complex, here exists a burial chapel (turbe), in which the central place is taken by the grave of Hadzi - Muhamed Hajati, who was of Persian origin and was the first dervish leader (sheyh) in Ohrid. Sinan- Chelebi turbe (tomb) In close proximity to the church St. Clement and Pantelejmon at Plaoshnik there is a turbe (tomb) with the grave of Sinan Chelebi, the founder of the charity facility Imaret 171

172 (kitchen) for the poor which existed up until He died in 1493, and beside his grave in the turbe, is placed a grave of Tashula and her baby, who was the wife of the owner of the city in the XIX century, Dzeladin Bey. The Clock Tower The Clock Tower, built in the foothills of the eastern part of the Ohrid hill in 1726, stroke every passing hour according to Ala Turka until The Clock Tower was closely connected to the old bazaar and it was important to the Muslim people because their daily prayer in the Islamic temples five times a day. 172

173 Old City Architecture The old-town architecture of Ohrid holds its rightful place in the cultural heritage of this town, especially due to the fact that the typical look of an oriental town house from the XVIII and XIX, with its stylish features, has been preserved. Such architecture can be found in other places as well, not only in the country; however, this architectural style has developed into an original, local feature, created under the European influence. The lack of air and light in the alleys is due to the big houses with many floors, each of them being bigger from the previous one, and all of them having a lot of windows facing south, towards the lake. The limited space for construction resulted in narrow streets among the houses; some of the alleys are so narrow that hardly two people can pass without rubbing their shoulders against one another. The few preserved houses from the XIX century can be found in denselypopulated streets, scattered all over the old part of the town, each of them having its own glamour. The preserved facilities of the old Ohrid housing architecture are admirable monuments of the Macedonian past and they present inspiration for the contemporary architectural creativity. The building of the first Robevi House was finished on the 15th of April 1827, as witnessed by the inscription in Greek on the marbled flagstone. This famous Ohrid merchant family lived in the house for 35 years and in 1862 a famous criminal from Ohrid Ustref Beg, burnt it to the ground. Two years later, in the house was rebuilt. It 173

174 was divided in two parts: left and right. Konstantin Robev lived in the left part of the house and his brother Atanas Robev in the right part. The main builder was Todor Petkov who built the house from scratch. The family lived in the newly built house until 1900 when they moved to Bitola and used the house as a summer residence. From 1913 till 1919 in the time of the Balkan Wars and the First World War, the house hosted Serbian soldiers. Some damages were found in the house after they left, part of the carvings was taken to Serbia (Nish). The house has been protected as a culturalhistoric museum of the country since the Second World War ended. The last reconstruction of this marvelous building was made in the 1990s. At present, the largest part of the museum, the archeological collection 174

175 that demonstrates the archeological treasure of the Ohrid region from the prehistory until the present is located in the architectural beauty of Ohrid, in the house of the Robev family. In the shirvan (under ceiling) of the house, which is promoted into an Ohrid residence and the Ohrid carving is displayed. The memorial floor of the Robev family with original material details from their time is situated in the east wing of this beautiful construction which carries within the marks and the traditions of the exciting XIX century. The Krapche House represents a unique artistic achievement. It is a typical representative of the house from the XIX century as part of organic urbanism, using minimal space on a given location, near the lake and near the church of St. Sophia. The building has a height of ground floor and 2 floors. Stone ground floors and light wooden bondruchna construction. The roof of the building was originally painted with old Turkish style tiles. Stone western facade wall is only 2.62 meters wide and forms the rhomboid dimensions to the east. The floors are omitted overhang so that increase useful surfaces of first and second floor. The most characteristic element is the tympani on western facade which increases the spatial structure of the house creating harmony of the walls. The building was originally preserved except interior changes, but time has done its own and is needed permanent protection. There were static disorders / cracks / of the walls. Extensive conservation works was done to be preserved as an object in its original form. In 1968 due to static disorder of the building by the owners made a set of steel sections such as beams and columns on the south facade of the building. In 1999 was made a change to the overall carpentry facility, conservation of the facades, and horizontal and vertical linings and other interventions in the interior. 175

176 The House of Patchev is located in the old city core in Ohrid called Varos, in the Car Samuel street no. 60, surrounded by dense urban structure of the houses around clinging to each other separated by narrow lanes, oriented towards the south and the lake. The surrounding complex of houses is one of the few authentic examples of old architecture in Ohrid. The visual effect is created by the houses of the street front is often the inspiration for photography and painting, postcards, various publications, and even postage stamps as a symbol and something unique, authentic, recognizable only to Ohrid. The house was built in the late XIX century (probably built in the same period as the house Robevci). The ground floor is built of stone with one part stuck in the ground, has two inputs as a result of the former divide the house into two parts, which has been revitalized to the craft store isolated from the rest of the house. The floors are constructed of wood system and have retained the same function with the same layout of the premises, with floor plate construction of wooden beams and wooden ladders. The roof construction is wood and the covering is tile Turkish style. The façade is performed in the typical old traditional style, painted white, with a richly profiled cantilever of storey. The general physical condition and preservation is good, because there was repaired works in The House of Bojadjievi is located in the protected core of the city. House is the southern part of a fraternal house, originally preserved specimen from the Ohrid old town architecture. Characteristic of this facility is that it is one of the few who do not follow the street line, but is set free location, pulled in its intimate yard. According the overall dimensions and architecture, is a typical example of meeting the program requirements in context of wealthy man. The way the building is typical of the era, the ground floor from stone walls with fugue and construction of the wooden walls covered with plaster. Floor plate and roof construction are wooden, made from boards and roof cover with old Turkish style tile. The interior is richly decorated, particularly the representative guest rooms (profiled plaster ceilings decorated with corners and central rosettes of secondary plastics, richly molded plastic showcase chicheklac and fireplaces, decorative wood paneling on the walls and profiled angled batten, fitted cupboards with characteristic richly decorated doors with profiled horizontal and vertical linings and rosettes, representative entrance doors). Performed in conservation and rehabilitation interventions on the facade and the interior is preserved all the original property. The interior is in poor 176

177 condition, is ruined and damaged. Essential is its conservation and restoration in order to authentically preserve. The building was declared as a cultural monument in The Gallery of Icons in Ohrid is situated in the museum complex of the Church Noly Mather of God Peribleptos. The collection consists of some thirty icons from the Ohrid region which posses the highest artistic qualities thus making this gallery part of the three most famous such galleries in the world. Most of the icons in this collection have been created between the XI and XIX century in the artistic workshops in Ohrid while some of them were brought here from the Byzantine and Thessalonica workshops. The unknown painters reached a genuine perfection in the painting of the icons which are characterized with refined drawing, tender modulation and harmonic colors. A special place in this collection belongs to the processional icons (litii), painted on both sides, which impress with their plastic treatment of their making and the expression of the inner life of the painted saints. 177

178 Ohrid Handicrafts The Ohrid Bazaar and its old crafts started developing long time ago, as a logical horizontal conclusion along the hill that was the residential, religious and cultural centre. The Ohrid territory was rich in products wanted outside the borders, and many important traffic arteries of the Balkans Peninsula, including the Via Egnatia road, passed through it. During that past period, although without urbanists and architects, the city erected and developed into a unique harmony, without tendency to usurp the space and views, developed in characteristic geographic, historical, ethno-social conditions of living and working. The people of the Ohrid possess a special artistic spirit, and numerous crafts have been practiced here for centuries. Today these traditional skills are still performed in much the original manner. The Ohrid pearl A secret that has been carefully kept for almost a century. It is the brightness and the uniqueness of the one-of-a-kind Ohrid pearl, a jewel that the city is famous for far and wide. In the old bazaar in Ohrid you can hear many tangled stories about the creation of the pearl. The Talevi family is considered to be one of the rare families that fervently guard the tradition and the single recipe for the manufacturing of this beautiful and unique jewelry. The secret story of the pearl s origin begins with the scales of the Ohrid fish Plasica, but the manner of elaboration and the recipe for the glazing is a family secret passed on only to the male descendants. It is only known that the recipe was bought in the distant 1924 from a Russian soldier who was staying in Ohrid and the material was brought from Bethlehem by the Talevi family. Undoubtedly the wonderful pearl carries the secret of its manufacturing hidden within its beauty. Since 1924 the Talev family has been designing Ohrid pearls. The secret of preparations of the emulsion has been transferred from father to son, with no exception only to male successors, whilst the females are trained for assistance if necessary. The emulsion used to cover the Ohrid pearl has natural origin and it is made by taking out the silver from the skin of the plasica fish, which exists only in Lake Ohrid. Kliment Talev is the second generation who designs Ohrid pearls. His son Vane is the third and the grandchildren Kliment and Mihajlo will be the forth generation. 178

179 A significant place in the Ohrid pearl design belongs to the Filev family which is among the candidates for the King of Ohrid pearls with a family tradition dating from In the remote 1923 Mihajlo Filev finds out the secret of pearl production from the skin of plasica - an endemic fish species in Lake Ohrid. The Filev family begins with pearl design transferring this craft from generation to generation. More than 80 years the pearl jewelry of Filev as a leading souvenir in the city of Ohrid updated by each new generation, becomes a part of the jewelry collections of many people in country and worldwide. Filigree A review of the holy and cultural sites in Ohrid wouldn t be completed without mentioning Vangel Dereban, whose filigree workshop is a living museum of this traditional filigree craft in designing jewelry. The silversmith s craft, that is, the filigree is a century s long tradition in Ohrid. In the Dereban family as well as in other families that are involved in silversmith s craft this craft is transferred from father to son. Woodcarving The woodcarving achieves its culmination in the first half of the 19th century with the design of the iconostasis in the church St. Spas in Skopje and monastery St. Jovan Bigorski situated in the Valley of Radika River. In that time, besides Petar Filipovski from the village Gari, the most famous woodcarving was his brother Marko and Makarie Negriev Frckovski. They worked together for a period of time. The period of the 19th century becomes a century of Macedonian peasants woodcarving and fresko painters (zografi). Gathered in a number of teams they would leave their villages Galicnik, Lazaropole, Gari, Osoj and Tresonce in spring time and would work through on the Balkan in order to earn for living. Late in autumn they would come back on the slopes of the mountain Bistra and other mountains in the valley of Radika river. The woodcarving from Debar vicinity decorated with woodcarved iconostasis the churches of St. Bogorodica Bolnicka and St. Bogorodica Kamensko in Ohrid. They are considered among more significant accomplishments. By working on the iconostasis, the woodcarvers as unique artists in the Christian east region, pondered in the heart of the wood searching for its most melodic expression. In the period before and after the First World War, the craft of woodcarving began to decline sharply. In 1928 in order to renew this artistic activity the academic sculptor Branislav Jovancevik founded the artistic woodcarving school in Debar. In 1930, this school was transferred to Ohrid. After the Second World War a school for woodcarving was founded in Ohrid which later on was transferred to Skopje as a department of the school for applied art. 179

180 Woodcarving in Ohrid was launched again in the second period of the 20th century. Thus, in the course of many years of work in the artistic atelier for woodcarving school in Ohrid and Debar as true followers of the rich woodcarving traditions in the country, created a number of pieces of extraordinary artistic value. The last generations of woodcarvers from the first years of the 20th century live and work in Ohrid: Ljupco and Saso Djambas, father and son, Ajri Doko, Dimce Janko, Koco Ainoski and other followers of the woodcarving traditions in the country. School of Byzantine Painting Ohrid has been a city with rich medieval painting tradition for centuries. Apart from Sinai and Altos, Ohrid holds the richest collection of Byzantine icons from 11th - 19th century. The Ohrid collection displayed in the Gallery of icons in the museum complex of the church of Holy Mother of God Peribleptos consists of over thirty icons with outstanding artistic qualities. Most of the icons were composed in the Ohrid craft stores, and some were sent as presents from Constantinople or Thessaloniki during the course of centuries. Almost all icons of the present Ohrid gallery composed until the 15th century are characterized by their superb colorful solutions and with beauty of the painter s final touches. They seem as if they were woven with subtle combinations of golden, violet and blue color and yellow tones with no accent that might spoil the colorful unity. Some of these icons were composed for religious processions, thus being painted on both sides. The icons for the religious processions from the Ohrid collection are listed among the best pieces of art in this collection of Byzantine icon script. The Ohrid icons are masterpieces of fresco painters from different generations and followers of all possible existing 180

181 movements of the Byzantine medieval painting within duration of several centuries. They are painted in different techniques. Most of them are painted in tempera on wood, and those that were composed in a mosaic technique, hammered as reliefs in silver or wood carved are rarity. Most of the Ohrid fresco painters at the same time did icons for the churches of Ohrid. Even though the fresco painters did not leave their signatures, today by great amount of certainty, we could follow the work of certain painters who did frescoes and icons simultaneously. Later on, the Ohrid fresco painters used the characters from the frescoes in the church St. Bogorodica Perivlepta from the 13th century to serve as models when painting icons. Ten of the icons of the Ohrid collection are decorated with silver frames. These frames have a distinctive significance for the study of the applied art in the medieval age, especially for the study of the activity of the medieval artistic craft stores. Characters of saints and prophets and compositions of the Old and New Testament in miniature, the symbols of the gospel as well as flora and geometrical ornaments are presented on the frame covers of the Ohrid icons. The frame covers of the Ohrid icons are piece of work of the artistic craft from the 11th century and on. The high artistic values of these silver frame covers are expressed in the precise work of the reliefs in miniature. Their composers were artists with the highest creative possibilities of the time. The present collection of the Ohrid icons is completed after the Second World War. Special merits for this belong to the painter and conservator Zdravko Blazik. Most of the Ohrid icons that were damaged blackened or later on unprofessionally repainted were found by him in the state of irretrievable destruction. The painter Blazik, having done a detailed examination, decided that the greatest enemy of the wood on which the icons were painted was a type of a worm known as Anobium. This worm destroys the icons in such a degree that the core of the wood turns into spongy material. As a result of this, a procedure for replacing the damaged wood had to be undertaken in order to save the Ohrid icons. The blackness from the smoke melted by the polishing cover would not allow the recognition of the real artistic qualities of some of the most significant Ohrid icons. In such condition was found the well-known icon of the apostle Mateo from the XIII century, as well as the widely-famous icon of Bogorodica Psichosotrija (Soul saver), with the opposite side presenting the composition of Blagovestenie. 181

182 Later in time, most of the Ohrid icons vanished forever. A considerable number of Ohrid icons are displayed in different museums and collections. However, it is very difficult to determine how many icons is part of other collections. Additionally, it is very difficult to determine how many icons there were in Ohrid in the time when the city of Kliment achieved its artistic prosperity. In collaboration with the painter Vladislav Kocarev Ohrid, in 2005 was opened the first school for Byzantine icon painting. All medieval art lovers during a ten day beginner s course with theoretical and practical lectures on icon painting have the opportunity to produce icons following the original Byzantine tradition and they are able to take them home as their souvenirs. Copper products by the Marinov family The tradition of copper products by the Marinov family from Ohrid has lasted for nine centuries. Slave Marinov as a third generation and his daughter Maria Marinova as the fourth generation in this craft successfully follow the century long tradition: they manufacture cooper and brass items and jewelry by hand carving and hammering. The Metal Obsession of Anastas Dudan The craft of producing works of art of metal is more than 2,600 years old in the Ohrid region. As early as the sixth century BC, the people of the Trebenista cultural area produced, with great inventiveness, brilliant artifacts that still excite art lovers. With his works in metal, Anastas Dudan from Ohrid revives the historical art object as reminiscence, aiming to achieve the artistic values of the old masters. He is not the sole artist in Ohrid who expresses himself in metal, but he is the only one who has achieved excellent results `reviving the exceptional values of the Macedonian mediaeval icon and fresco painting environment, capturing the essence of those works through the beating and hammering of metal surfaces. Dudan has achieved enviable results using his technological knowledge and 182

183 expertise in decorations adorning the mediaeval icons of the famous Ohrid Collection. He has also managed to recreate the illuminating artistic value of old Macedonian manuscripts with a rare creative devotion originating in the depths of his soul. Manufacturing leather products In the old Ohrid charshija there is a well-known workshop of the brothers Gorgi and Milcho Belevi for manufacturing leather items. They are well-known in the Netherlands. Dutch visitors often visit them by recommendation and they usually buy souvenirs of leather dancing shoes or some other products. Handmade Paper The tradition of making a paper in the country begins from the second half of 16th century in the monastery of St. Naum. It was used for internal needs in limited quantity. The national Workshop for Handmade paper St. Climent Ohridski, Ohrid continues this tradition. It has started its work on The workshop is placed in the magnificent part of the old city, next to the National Museum - Robev family house. 183

184 Management The Management plan will provide a vision for the future of the cultural and natural heritage of the Ohrid and region using the status of a world heritage with universal values as a strategic potential for improving the local community and the good of all its citizens. The World Heritage of Ohrid region, with the awareness of the value of the natural and cultural heritage it possesses, will build its prosperity based on a contemplated management policy, in a way that will satisfy the needs of the present generations, and with the aim to pass it on to the future generations with all its beauty, diversity and authenticity. The development of the Ohrid region should be based on balanced and harmonized relations between the cultural and natural heritage and the new contents on the areas of the land and lake, and the social needs, economic activities in the cultural and natural surroundings. Thanks to the rich heritage of these areas, the tradition of celebrating the religious holiday marking the days dedicated to certain saints who receive 184

185 Zone: up to 1000m from the Core Zone: up to 500 m from the Core Zone: Monument Core Border / edge of the Monumental Zone international significance continues even today. In addition there are also musical - cultural events with a long tradition of existence such as the Ohrid Summer Festival and the Balkan Festival of Folk songs and games. Emphasis is placed on the seminar for Macedonian language - spoken in the country with the participation of worldwide experts slavists that is already held for many years. The awareness of the importance of the region and the need for its protection is expressed through the establishment of several institutions of the region under the protection of UNESCO as natural and cultural heritage. The potential monument value of the urban integrity of Ohrid is a lot more meaningful than the generality of the preserved material data. The old matrix of the ancient solutions and urban agglomerations is kept, but the total cultural, historical, architectural and artistic potential is not fully determined even for the most valuable architectures in the region which are known as individual monuments. The valorization of the cultural heritage has a double objective: to accentuate the value of the architectural entity, and to estimate its role in expanding our knowledge about the genesis of the urban agglomerations. Based on previous research of the urban past and heritage of the city as well as the analogue experiences in the studies prepared for the city so far, the initial scale of valorization has been made: 185

186 1. Cultural properties: ensembles and structures with high cultural, historic, architectural and artistic potential, source of data for the past events in the city, social events and influences by the developed spiritual centers, complex value of the heritage: architecture, church movables, ecclesiastic archive etc. Besides the most important sacred and other buildings, the archaeological remains are of special importance, as well. 2. Architectural stylistic ensembles as spatial unions raised through multiple chronological stylistic periods, preserved important architectural elements of authentic statements. 3. Individual objects from the residential architecture preserved in its original form, arranged along the ancient elite city streets. 4. The Neolithic architecture represented through sacral and residential architecture as well as buildings of public character dated form the period of the late XIX and the early XX century. 5. Rich fund of preserved fragmented plastic stone significant for the old-time genesis of the architectures and urban integrities discovered during archaeological researches or during excavation of soil for construction of new buildings. 6. Ambient values of the profane architecture with all stylistic features located on the steep terrain embedded in the grassland or in the coastal part of the city. 7. Variance with the ambient: construction of multiple storey buildings with bulky volumes and inappropriate architecture disproportional with the small architecture of the city Vision The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 1 will promote the world significance of Ohrid as a protected region by using the status as a strategic potential for sustainable development and progress of the local community and its citizens. The region of the World natural and cultural heritage of the Ohrid Region which has a completely built awareness about the natural and the cultural values that it possesses will base its development and prosperity on a well-thought policy for managing the natural and cultural heritage for the purpose of satisfying the needs of the today generations which will leave beautiful, authentic and diverse inheritance to the future generations. The development of the protected area will be based on the balanced and harmonic relations between the natural and cultural heritage and its content, both in the space of the lake shore and the wide belt around it and in the lake itself, between the social needs, the economic activities and the natural and cultural environment 1 In the context of the United Nations, the European Union and some other countries, the State is recognized under the term the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The government of this country is using the term Republic of Macedonia for itself, which is also recognized by a number of countries. 186

187 O H R I D L A K E Strategic Objectives & Relevant Issues Strengthening the legal and institutional infrastructure in order to preserve and protect the universal values of the region. Providing an efficient application of the laws and planned documentation for protection of the natural and cultural heritage from uncontrolled urbanization. Valorisation and revalorization of the natural and cultural heritage. Integral protection of the natural and cultural heritage trough permanent control of the local urban development. Economic development of the protected region trough exploitation of the potentials on the sustainable growth principle. Strengthening the human recourses potential at all levels, by educating new, or further education and specialization of the current professional staff. Sustainable cultural and scientific growth of the region by restoring the ancient authentic functions of certain areas, introduction to new archaeological, important contents and by implementing new compatible content within the area, as its support. 2 2 Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region World Heritage Site Management plan. 187

188 Management Problems The World heritage site is sensitive to the changes and growth, but these two are both inescapable and desirable for the development and the life in that site. However, the uncontrolled and excessive change of the character and essence of the protected area can endanger the values due to which the natural and cultural heritage of the Ohrid region is found on the World heritage list. A particular danger for the area is the excessive and uncontrolled urbanization that is taking place continuously, so that, as ascertained by the UNESCO-ICOMOS-IUCN mission back in 1998, the construction of many buildings along the coastal zone of the Ohrid Lake, from the village of Radozda ranging to St. Naum, leads to a permanent change in the existing structure of the settlements on the coast, the landscape itself and, more or less the untouched coast, which was identified as a risk and which could jeopardize the universal value of the World Heritage area of the Ohrid region. In addition to this, the current urbanization and increased construction of individual buildings as well as accelerated economic development, are negatively affecting the preservation of old urban architecture as well as the structure of the old part of Ohrid and the surrounding areas where historical monuments are found. The historic city center of Ohrid is a vivid example of how two justified goals can come into conflict with each other: on the one hand the goal to preserve the cultural heritage in a form as authentic as possible, and on the other hand to improve the living conditions of the people who inhabit the town. When Ohrid became a World Heritage in 1979, mostly of the houses were the original buildings an ideal situation from the point of view of authenticity and integrity. However, these houses were more than 100 years old, and many of them were close to collapsing. Furthermore, they did not have some of the basic facilities which would make them inhabitable according to modern standards, and over the years most of the owners demolished their houses and built new ones in their place. While UNESCO protested against these activities, the government tried to ensure in most cases successfully - that the new houses would be built in the same historic style as the old houses had been, even though the materials used for the new houses were not those of the historic buildings. While most of the scientific experts complain about the deplorable loss of authenticity, one could say that at least its integrity has been preserved, and the old town, different from others such as Dubrovnik, continues to be a living residential area inhabited by its.original population. 188

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190 The Plaoshnik Project (3D) Another interesting and very controversial case is the Plaoshnik Project. Plaoshnik is a large archeologic and historic site on the forested hill to the west of old Ohrid, bearing witness of all the cultural eras from prehistory to the Ottoman but most importantly, it has been the site of the first Slavic-Orthodox School, established by St. Kliment in 893. This school became one of the most important centers for the spread of Christian Orthodoxy in the Balkans and all Eastern Europe. In an attempt to revitalize this great ancient tradition and to re-establish Ohrid as a center of learning, the government is planning to build a new Slavic University virtually on top of the ruins of the ancient school. While the idea to re-establish an ancient institution itself is very much in line with UNESCO requirements for revitalizing historic sites, and certainly would contribute greatly to the continuing Orthodox tradition of Ohrid, there are fears that the project may be oversized, alter the present character of the site and create traffic problems in the old town, restrict access to the archaeological sites and overshadow the non-orthodox cultural heritage. In both of the cases mentioned, dialogue and compromise are needed in order to preserve the values of the World Heritage while at the same time allowing Ohrid to remain a living and changing urban organism which has to provide opportunities for its inhabitants. It is necessary to provide the adequate mechanisms of protection and management of the area in order to avoid changes or diminish as much as possible those changes that could be detrimental to the area of World Heritage. Moreover, what is indispensable is an adequate policy in this area, legal and institutional infrastructure, cooperation between the political, professional, private and civil society, as to all parties in 190

191 the system of protection and management of the area can monitor and control changes to preserve the universal values of World Heritage area. There are many opportunities offered by the World Heritage status as, for example: improving the management and condition of the area, improving its accessibility and utilization, as well as contribution to the cultural and economic life of the local community and the visitors. Bibliography Archaeological map of Macedonia, Volume 2 - Skopje, W. Blazhic: Cleaning and conservation of the frescoes in the church in Ohrid Sv. Kliment, 1951 E. Çelebi: Travelogue, 1657 B. Chipan: Macedonian cities in the nineteenth century and their urban perspective, MANU, Skopje, 1978 B. Chipan: Old town architecture in Ohrid, Macedonian book - Skopje, 1982 B. Chipan: Cathedral of the Archbishopric of Ohrid - St. Sofia, 1995 V. Dereban: Macedonian jewelry, Bitola, H. Gelyer: The Patriarchate of Ohrid, A. Grabar: The bed of Solomon 1963 A. Graber: The Byzantium, Byzantine art of the Middle Ages, Paris, 1963 A. Graber: The Art of the Middle Ages in Eastern Europe, Paris 1968 D. Grabrijan: Macedonian house, Ljubljana, 1955 F. Grivec: Ohridska slika, Slovo, Zagreb, 1960 C. Grozdanov: Ohrid Notes, C. Grozdanov: Portrait of Clement of Ohrid in medieval art, Institute for Protection of Cultural Monuments and Museum - Ohrid, Museums in Ohrid, Institute of National History: Ohrid and Ohrid region through history. Book 1 and 2, Skopje 1985 D. Kornjakov: After conservation works in the church Virgin Perivleptos, Pasko Kuzman, Macedonian Cultural Heritage, OHRID world heritage site, Skopje 2009 R. Kuzmanovski: D. Shaljikj, Ohrid - Belgrade, 1966 R. Ljubinkovic: Masters of old Serbian painting, 1957 Lychnidos V - Proceedings, Ohrid, : J. Mano Zisi: Small contributions of paintings of the 14th century church of the Ohrid, N. Mavrodinov: Old Bulgarian paintings, F. Mesesnel: Ohrid - Skopje, 1934 France Mesesnel: Ohrid, the town and the lake, Skopje, 1934 Q. N. Miljukov: Christian antiquity in Western Macedonia, 1899 P. Milkovic Pepek: The work of Michael and Eutihij, 1967 P. Mitreski: Student colony in Ohrid 1938, 1940 P. Mitreski: Crafts in the Ohrid - Struga region ( ), NIO Student Word, Skopje, Q. Mitreski: The development of handicrafts in the Ohrid - Struga region ( ) B. Nusic: On the shores of Lake Ohrid - Travelogue - Belgrade, 1894 Vlagimjezh Pjanka: Toponyms of Ohrid - Prespa basin, Skopje, 1970 V. Plevnes: Saddlemaker craft in Ohrid, Lychnidos-annual collection of the National Museum in Ohrid, book 2-3, V. Plevnes: Ohrid-developed craft center in the past, ( ) V. R. Petkovic: Frescos with show of Wisdom, 1929 D. Talbot Rice: Byzantine Art, London, 1953 D. Talbot Rice: The Beginnings of Christian Art, London, 1957 D. Talbot Rice: Art of the Byzantine Era, London, 1963 D. Talbot Rice: Byzantine Painting: the Last Phase, New York, 1968 A. Salih: Boilermaker craft in Ohrid I. Snegarov: History of the Archbishopric of Ohrid, D. Stefania: To trade names and surnames of Ohrid Bazaar of the nineteenth century I. Stojanoski: Speak not to forget. Radio Ohrid, 1996 and Jovan F. Trifunovski: Ohrid and Struga area-belgrade, 1992 A. Urosevic: Ohrid - geographical monograph, Skopje, 1957 Sources from the Internet:

192 The Authors Vassilis Birbos Vassilis Birbos, born in Ioannina in 1979, is an engineer graduated in Spatial Planning, Urban Planning & Regional Development from the School of Engineering of the University of Thessaly. He is currently operating a Technical Office in Ioannina where he elaborates studies in various fields such as spatial planning and urban planning, environmental protection and environmental after-effects, local and regional development. He was previously working as a technical consultant for the Department of Environment and Spatial Planning of the Region of Epirus and for the Regional Development Agency EPIRUS SA for 5 years. vmpirmpos@yahoo.gr Stephan Doempke Stephan Doempke, born 1955 in Muenster, Germany, studied psychology, cultural anthropology and science of religions in Muenster, Wichita/Kansas and Berlin. Throughout his life he has committed himself to the preservation of natural and cultural heritage, first for the indigenous peoples of North America and the Pacific. In 1989 he joined the founding team at the House of World Cultures in Berlin, and from coordinated the Russia and Central Asia Programme of the German Nature Conservation Union (NABU). He supported the revitalization of feltmaking in Kyrgyzstan and was a free-lance consultant for rural income-generation in Mongolia, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Montenegro. In 2008 he became UN Programme Coordinator for Culture and Heritage in Albania, and since then has been an expert for UNESCO World Heritage in Gjirokastra, Albania. Contact: PANDoempke@t-online.de Maximilian Hartmuth Maximilian Hartmuth (Ph.D.) is a historian and art historian focusing on the Balkan region. Currently a research fellow of the Turkish Cultural Foundation, he has edited three volumes dedicated to the study of that region s Ottoman-period heritage (Centres and peripheries in Ottoman architecture, 2011; Images of imperial legacy, 2011; Monuments, patrons, contexts: papers on Ottoman Europe presented to Machiel Kiel, 2010) and has authored a number of independent studies on the same topic, most recently The history of centre-periphery relations as a history of style in Ottoman provincial architecture (2011), Turkish coffee and béton brut: an architectural portrait of Skopje (2010, co-authored by I. Tolić), and Insufficiently oriental? An early episode in the study and preservation of the Ottoman architectural heritage in the Balkans (2010). Contact: kielarchive@nit-istanbul.org 192

193 Varvara N. Papadopoulou Varvara N. Papadopoulou is serving as director of the 8 th Euphorate of Byzantine Antiquities (Regional Service of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture) with jurisdiction in the Prefectures of Ioannina and Thesprotia and of the Byzantine Museum of Ioannina. She completed her graduate studies in Archaeology and History of Art at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She received her postgraduate degree in Middle Age Studies from the University of Ioannina and is currently a Ph. D. candidate at the aforementioned university. Recently she has also taken up the management of the 18 th Euphorate of Byzantine Antiquities whose jurisdiction includes the Byzantine and Post Byzantine monuments of the Prefectures of Arta and Preveza. Contact: vpapadopoulou@culture.gr Goran Patchev Goran Patchev, born 1967 in Ohrid, fyrom, graduate architect engineer in Ss. Cyril and Methodius University - Faculty of Architecture in Skopje. His experience since 1996 gained in a variety of companies that deal with architectural design through urban planning and environmental protection in his hometown. The last 7 years to date find its place as employed in National Institute for Protection of Monuments of Culture and Museum - Ohrid, as an authorized conservator for protection of immovable cultural heritage. From 2006 he is a member of ICOMOS MK as a president of subcommittee for digitalization of monuments of culture. From 2009 member of the Chamber of certified architects and engineers of the Republic of Macedonia and a member of the Association of Architects of Macedonia (AAM). Contact: patcevg@yahoo.com Bariu Zenelaj Bariu Zenelaj, born in 1964 in Suharekë, Kosovo, studied English-American Language and Literature at Prishtina University. For over 10 years, he has worked as a cartoonist and illustrator for all Kosovo newspapers. Bariu gained valuable professional experience working for international relief agencies and other civil society organizations for over 14 years. He is currently managing the Academy for Training and Technical Assistance, a non-for profit organization working in the fields of culture and European Integration. Bariu Zenelaj is married to Leonora, and they have two children, Zell (17) and Alp (7). They live and work in Prizren. Contact: bari@atta-ks.org 193

194 Photo and Map Credits 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities: 78c, 79, 80, 82a, 82b, 83b, 84c, 85a, 85b, 88a, 89a, 89b, 90a, 92a Srdjan Adamovic: 170a Archive of the Comintern: 31c Boris Chipan: 150c, 153 BBC: 115a Vasileos Birbos: 106 Cultural Heritage without Borders: 144 Stephan Doempke: 10, 24, 26a, 27, 28, 30b, 33, 34b, 36b, 37e, 38a, 39a, 39b, 39c, 40a, 40b, 40c, 41a, 41b, 42a, 42b, 43b, 44a, 44b, 46, 47, 48b, 49a, 49b, 49c, 50a, 50c, 51a, 53a, 53b, 54a, 54b, 59a, 59b, 59c, 60a, 60b, 60c, 61b, 62a, 62b, 62c, 64a, 64b, 65b, 65c, 66a, 67a, 67c, 68a, 68c, 69a, 69b, 70a, 70b, 71, 72a, 72c, 73a, 73b, 73c, 76a, 76b, 81, 83a, 83c, 83d, 84a, 84b, 84d, 85c, 85d, 85e, 86a, 86b, 87, 88b, 90b, 91a, 91b, 92b, 94b, 95b, 96, 99b, 100a, 101b, 102a, 103, 105a, 105b, 108, 119a, 119c, 120, 122a, 122b, 122c, 122d, 124a, 126a, 126b, 126e, 128a, 129b, 130b, 131, 132c, 133a, 133b, 134a, 134b, 134c, 138, 148b, 152a, 154a, 155, 157, 159, 162a, 162b, 162c, 163b, 163c, 164, 165a, 165b, 165c, 166b, 166c, 167a, 167b, 168a, 168b, 169b, 171b, 171c, 172a, 174a, 177a Stephan Doempke/Kreshnik Merxhani: 34a, 50b Stephan Doempke/GCDO: 36a/37a Ezilon: 112 GCDO: 30c, 31d, 32a, 35a, 37b, 37d, 38b, 45, 48a, 63, 65c Stephen Fenner: 111a, 111b Edward Finden: 82c Friends of Macedonia: 152b Milco Georgievski: 169a, 170b, 180b, 181a N. Gkioulis: 91c Google Earth: 25 Chris Hassler: 26b, 32b, 43a, 51b, 66b, 67d, 68b, 72b Hellenic Library: 78b Institut du Monde Arabe: 29a Institute for Monuments of Culture (Prizren): 114, 117, 119b, 125a, 126c, 126d, 127a, 127b, 127c, 129a, 132a, 132d, 139a, 140a, 140b, 141a A. Karadimou-Gerolimpou: 100b Konstantinos Ignatiadis: 74, 82d Alket Islami: 35b, 61a Albert Kasi: 32c Tony Lumb: 37c, 48c Macedon1998: 151 Macedonia FAQ Development Team: 152c Olivera Misheva: 174b, 177b, 179, 180a, 181b, 182b, 183a, 183b, 183c Klairi Moustafellou: 75, 94a, 95a, 97a, 97b, 97c, 97d, 98, 99a Municipality of Prizren: 118,

195 National Institute for Monuments of Culture and Museums - Ohrid: 149a, 149c, 154b, 156a, 156b, 178a Numismatic Museum of Athens: 78a Ohridski Biser: 178b Goran Patcev: 149b, 150a, 160, 161, 163a, 169c, 172b, 175, 176a, 176b, 182a, 184a, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190 Prizren 360 : 110 Clara Puech: 101a Emin Riza: 55a, 55b, 56a, 56b, 56c, 57a, 57b, 57c, 58a, 58b Stojan Saveski: 147 Arben Shala: 121b, 121c, 123a, 124b, 125b, 128b, 129c, 130a, 132b, 133c, 136a, 136b, 136c, 136d, 137a, 137b, 137c, 137d, 139b, 141b, 141c, 142b Roland Tasho: 64c, 65a, 67b UNESCO: 70c Marian Vare: 146, 166a Adjola Vrekaj: 171a, 173a, 173b Wikimedia Commons: 29b, 31a, 31b, 115b, 148a, 184b 178c 30a 150b Petros Xenikos: 102b Bariu Zenelaj: 121a, 132b, 135a, 135b, 142a 195

196 EVAH Partner Contact Details Partners Gjirokastra Conservation and Development Organization Mr. Sadi Petrela Obelisku, Qafa e Pazarit Gjirokastra Albania Tel: info@gjirokastra.org Academy for Training and Technical Assistance Mr. Bariu Zenelaj Qazim Berisha No: Prizren Kosovo Tel info@atta-ks.org EGNATIA EPIRUS Foundation Anthrakitou 5 & Tsechouli Street Ioannina Greece Tel eef@forthnet.gr Macedonian Artisan Trade Association Mr. Zoran Todorovski Cedomir Kantardziev, Skopje the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia zoran.t@matacraft.org.mk 196

197 Associate Partners City of Regensburg Matthias Ripp, World Heritage Management Regensburg Dr.-Martin-Luther-Str. 1 Germany ripp.matthias@regensburg.de City of Ioannina Town Hall, 5 A. Papandreou Square Ioannina, Epirus Greece , press@ioannina.gr A Soul for Europe Ms. Stephanie Maiwald c/o European House for Culture Place Flagey Brussels Belgium maiwald@asoulforeurope.eu Mozaik Community Development Foundation Soukbunar Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina info@mozaik.ba 197