VANJSKI UČINCI (EKSTERNALIJE)
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1 VANJSKI UČINCI (EKSTERNALIJE) dr. sc. Anto Bajo, izv.prof. Ekonomski fakultet Sveučilište u Zagrebu Eksternalije (I) Eksternalija ili eksterni/vanjski učinak - učinak koji je posljedica djelovanja jedne jedinke izravno na blagostanje druge jedinke, pri čemu se to djelovanje ne ostvaruje putem tržišnih cijena. Za razliku od učinaka koji se prenose putem tržišnih cijena, eksternalije nepovoljno djeluju na ekonomsku učinkovitost. Eksternalije su posljedica pogreške ili nemogućnosti da se uspostave vlasnička prava. Jedna od najvažnijih primjena teorije eksternalija u raspravi o kvaliteti okoliša. Eksternalije (vanjski učinci) (II) eksternalije se pojavljuju uvijek kada odluka pojedinca o proizvodnji ili potrošnji izravno utječe na proizvodnju ili potrošnju drugih jedinki, ali ne posredstvom tržišnih mehanizama. eksternalije predstavljaju situaciju u kojoj su narušeni uvjeti Pareto optimalnosti, a cijene ne odražavaju sve troškove i koristi, tj. ne postoji podudarnost između privatnih i društvenih troškova i koristi. U situaciji postojanja eksternalija, uvjet za društveno optimalnu proizvodnju je jednakost graničnog društvenog troška i granične društvene koristi. U uvjetima postojanja eksternalija tržišni mehanizmi ne dovode do optimalnog rješenja i zato je nužna intervencija države bilo mjerama regulative, porezima ili uspostavljanjem vlasničkih prava. 1
2 Proizvodnja željeza Tržišni neuspjesi Privatne su koristi vezani uz osobu ili poduzeće koje proizvodi željezo. Društvene su koristi od proizvodnje željeza vezane uz sve osobe u društvu. Sve dok jedino potrošači imaju koristi od proizvodnje željeza tada su privatne koristi jednake društvenim koristima. Prvi dio troškova odnosi se na privatne troškove proizvodnje željeza koje plaća poduzeće. Drugi dio troškova (zdravstveni problemi) plaćaju svi koji žive u gradu neovisno rade li ili ne u tvornici. U tom slučaju: privatni troškovi < društveni troškovi Privatni troškovi: troškovi proizvodnje željeza Društveni troškovi: troškovi proizvodnje željeza, zdravstveni problemi stanovnika grada Tržišni neuspjesi Privatni troškovi Društveni troškovi Privatne koristi 1) Troškovi proizvodnje željeza Njih plaća poduzeće. 1) Troškovi proizvodnje željeza. 2) Narušavanje zdravlja građana Njih plaća poduzeće i građani. 1) Korištenje željeza Dobivaju samo potrošači. 2
3 Privatni vs. Društveni troškovi Cigarete Spremnost (sklonost) plaćanja Granična sklonost plaćanja Granične privatne koristi Proizvodn ja željeza Ukupni troškovi proizvodn je željeza (1) Granični troškovi proizvodnje željeza Ukupna štetnost za zdravlje stanovnika grada (2) Granična štetnost za zdravlje građana Ukupni društveni trošak (1+2) Granični društveni trošak Eksternalije (vanjski učinci) (III) Obilježja eksternalija: Mogu ih stvarati potrošači i proizvođači. Po svojoj su prirodi recipročni. Mogu biti pozitivni. Javna dobra mogu se promatrati kao posebna vrsta eksternalije. Priroda vanjskih učinaka- grafička analiza HRK MSC = MPC + MD MPC d h g c MD 0 Društveno učinkovit output Q* b a f e Q 1 Stvarni output MB Q godišnje 3
4 Eksternalije (vanjski učinci) (IV) Prilikom prelaska na učinkovitu razinu proizvodnje: proizvođač gubi dobit u iznosu dcg potrošač ostvaruje dobitak u zbog smanjenja štete u iznosu abef što je jednako cdgh neto dobit za društvo je razlika između cdgh i dcg, odnosno dgh Eksternalije (vanjski učinci) (V) Nulto onečišćenje uglavnom nije društveno poželjno! (ono bi impliciralo sprječavanje proizvodnje, što je neučinkovito rješenje) pri ocjeni stvarnih graničnih šteta i koristi treba otkriti i ocijeniti štetu od onečišćenja, tj. identificirati vrste i količinu onečišćenja odrediti štetu uzrokovanu onečišćenjem odrediti kolika je vrijednost nastale štete (npr. voda u Vrbanima, cijena stanova zbog otpada u kvartu i sl.) Statistika onečišćenja zraka a/database Tablica 1. Onečiščivaći zraka u 2015., u tonama NMVOC - NOx - Nitrogen Non-methane volatile SOx- Sulphur NH3 - Ammonia oxides organic compounds oxides EU Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic Denmark Germany Estonia Ireland Greece Spain France Croatia Italy Cyprus Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Hungary Malta Netherlands Austria Poland Portugal Romania Slovenia Slovakia Finland Sweden United Kingdom Iceland Liechtenstein Norway Switzerland Turkey Source: Eurostat,
5 Izvori onečišćenja u (Eurostat, 2016.) Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama Privatna rješenja: Pregovaranje i Coaseov teorem spajanja poduzeća i internalizacija eksternalija primjena društvenih konvencija i moralnih pravila Državna rješenja: porezi potpore stvaranje tržišta utvrđivanje vlasničkih prava regulacija Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Utvrđivanje vlasničkih prava (I) Osnovni uzrok eksternalija nedostatak vlasničkih prava prirodni način rješavanja problema je privatizacija odgovarajućih resursa. HRK Coaseov teorem (jednom kada se utvrde vlasnička prava nije više potrebna državna intervencija za rješavanje problema eksternalija) MSC=MPC+MD Razlozi za pregovaranje postoje sve dok je MD > (MB MPC). MPC Učinkovito rješenje može se postići neovisno o tome kome su dodijeljena vlasnička prava. O tome govori Coaseov teorem. MB MD 0 Q* Q Q godišnje 5
6 Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Utvrđivanje vlasničkih prava (II) Coaseov teorem (1960), teorem prema kojem eksternalije ne doprinose pogrešnoj alokaciji sredstava, pod uvjetom da ne postoje transakcijski troškovi i da su vlasnička prava u potpunosti definirana. Obje će strane u toj situaciji, i strana koja proizvodi eksternalije i strana na koju eksternalije djeluju, imati tržišni poticaj pregovarati o obostrano korisnoj trgovini. Prema Coasevom teoremu ishod tog procesa bit će isti bez obzira tko ima pravo veta nad korištenjem sredstava. Dva razloga zašto se društvo ne može uvijek osloniti na Coaseov teorem pri rješavanju problema eksternalija: 1. teorem zahtijeva da troškovi pregovaranja budu dovoljno niski da ga ne sprečavaju, i 2. teorem pretpostavlja da vlasnici resursa mogu utvrditi izvor koji uzrokuje štetu na njihovu vlasništvu i zakonski spriječiti štetu Dodjela vlasničkih prava utječe na raspodjelu dohotka. Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Porezi (I) Pigou (1930-te): onečišćivaći proizvode previše jer se susreću s preniskim troškovima proizvodnje kako bi se to ispravilo, mogu se nametnuti porezi i time povećati cijene inputa Pigouov porez Pigouov porez porez nametnut na svaku jedinicu onečišćivačeve proizvodnje u iznosu jednakom graničnoj šteti pri učinkovitoj razini proizvodnje Državni odgovor na eksternalije- Porezi MSC = MPC + MD HRK Pigou porezni prihodi (MPC + cd) MPC i d j c MD MB 0 Q* Q 1 Q godišnje 6
7 Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Porezi (II) za postizanje učinkovitosti nije nužno davati nadoknade žrtvama onečišćenja teško je pronaći odgovarajuću stopu poreza primjena poreza pretpostavlja da je poznat onečišćivač i stupanj onečišćenja Ekološki porezi kao % BDP-a Izvor: Eurostat, Environmental tax revenue - energy taxes, transport taxes, pollution taxes, resource taxes and sum of pollution and resource taxes (for some countries the split between pollution and resource taxes was not possible). Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Potpore (I) Učinkovita razine proizvodnje može se postići plaćanjem onečišćivaču zato što ne onečišćuje (uz pretpostavku fiksnog broja onečišćivača) potpora za onečišćenje Za razine proizvodnje veće od Q* oportunitetni trošak proizvodnje (MPC + cd) je veći od granične koristi (MB) 7
8 Dolari u godini Državni odgovor na eksternalije: Potpore MSC = MPC + MD HRK Pigou potpora (MPC + cd) MPC i j d c k f g h MD 0 Q* e Q 1 MB Q godišnje Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Potpore (II) posljedice poreza i potpora na raspodjelu se razlikuju umjesto plaćanja poreza ijcd onečišćivač prima potporu dfhc potpora vodi većim profitima, pa će na dulji rok proizvodnja koja dovodi do onečišćenja postati atraktivna za veći broj poduzeća to može dovesti do porasta ukupnog onečišćenja za isplatu potpore treba prikupiti poreze. Porezi izazivaju troškove (smanjuju poticaje za rad i ulaganja) koji mogu premašivati koristi od uklanjanja eksternalija. potpore mogu biti etički nepoželjne Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Stvaranje tržišta država može potaknuti učinkovitost prodajući dozvole za onečišćenje i stvarajući tržište čistog zraka ili vode Tržište prava na onečišćenje cijena koja se plaća za dozvolu za onečišćenje naknada za onečišćenje S Z država može dodijeliti pravo na onečišćenje aukcijom, ili ih dodijeliti poduzećima koja ih dalje mogu slobodno prodati razlikuju se posljedice na raspodjelu naknade za onečišćenje smanjuju neizvjesnost u pogledu konačne količine onečišćenja, za razliku od Pigouova poreza P 1 D Z Z* Prava na proizvodnju sumporovih oksida (dijelovi na 100 milijuna) u godini 8
9 Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Regulacija Kod primjene regulacije svaki onečišćivač mora pristati na smanjenje onečišćenja za određeni iznos ili snositi zakonske sankcije. $ Reguliranje dvaju onečišćivača poznata granična šteta pri učinkovitoj razini ukupne proizvodnje (MPC x+d) = (MPC z+d) Takva regulacija vodi tome da neka poduzeća proizvode premalo, a neka previše. d MPC x = MPC z Vjerojatnije je da će tržišno usmjerena rješenja postići učinkovite ishode nego izravna regulacija. 0 Z* X* X 1=Z 1 MB x MB z Q godišnje Pozitivne eksternalije $ MC a b R 1 R* MSB = MPB + MEB MPB MEB Istraživanje godišnje Oprez s potporama Zahtjevi za potporama Izvori su financiranja porezni obveznici Tržište nije uvijek neučinkovito Potpora može biti odgovarajuća samo ako tržište ne omogućuje onima koji stvaraju društvenu koristi (djelatnost) da ostvare potpunu graničnu dobit. 9
10 Izbjegavanje neučinkovitosti nastalih eksternalijama: Hrvatska U Hrvatskoj su propisane naknade koje obveznici plaćaju za zaštitu okoliša i energetsku učinkovitost, a propisane su Zakonom o Fondu za zaštitu okoliša i energetsku učinkovitost ( ) naknada onečišćivača okoliša naknade korisnika okoliša naknada za opterećivanje okoliša otpadom posebna naknada za okoliš na vozila na motorni pogon Primjenjuju se još i: namjenske naknade (naknada za zaštitu voda, naknada za korištenje općekorisnih funkcija šuma, naknada za eksploataciju mineralnih sirovina) trošarine kazne Uredba o dražbi emisijskih jedinica stakleničkih plinova u Hrvatskoj 10
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