CIMIC Handbook of the Balkans

Transcription

1 CIMIC Handbook of the Balkans Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Kosovo Hungarian Defence Forces Civil-Military Cooperation and Psychological Operations Centre Budapest May 2005

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3 FOREWORD Being familiar with the social, cultural, religious, and historical circumstances of the people and the political and economic factors of the area of operations is crucial to the success of a military operation and to the acceptance of the forces by the local population. Our understanding of these factors can significantly contribute to a better understanding of a given situation and can help us to solve a crisis with fewer conflicts. In Hungary, it is the role of the Civil-Military Cooperation and Psychological Operation Centre to carry out CIMIC activities, which include establishing and maintaining full cooperation between the commander and the civilian authorities, organisations, agencies and the population within the commander's area of operations in order to support the commander s mission. The short-term goal of CIMIC is to establish and maintain co-operation with the local population in the area of operations to help the supported commander in the successful accomplishment of his mission. The long-term objective of CIMIC is to help create and sustain conditions that will contribute to solving the crisis in the long run. Accordingly, the role of the Civil-Military Cooperation and Psychological Operation Centre is to carry out tasks related to civil - military cooperation (maintaining civil military relations and supporting the civilian environment as well as the force), and to train other units to complete CIMIC tasks by holding conferences, making presentations and issuing publications. The Civil-Military Cooperation and Psychological Operation Centre is already publishing its fifth professional handbook since its establishment just a year ago. In this publication we would like to introduce those territories of the Balkan (Bosnia - Herzegovina, Macedonia, Kosovo) where the Hungarian Army is currently involved in peacekeeping operations and is expected to maintain its presence in the foreseeable future. Besides introducing this colourful region, our aim is to point out those factors, which make these countries and entities unique. Such information is vital to establishing and maintaining contact with the civilian population. The CIMIC handbook of the Balkans is an up to date publication full of relevant information. Due to our geographical position and the presence of our troops, we cannot afford not to pay close attention to the operations and everyday events taking place that region. During our research we tried to use the most up to date information. We used sources provided by the Hungarian Army, search results from the Internet, and the results of library research and consultation with expert officers already deployed in this region. We believe that the information presented in this book will be useful for the troops that are to be deployed in the Balkans as well as for people in the defence sector who get in contact with this region during their academic or daily work. LTC Tibor RÓZSA Commander 3

4 CONTENTS GEOPOLITICS... 6 CHAPTER I BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA FACTS HISTORY GEOGRAPHY POPULATION ECONOMY INFRASTRUCTURE POLITICAL SYSTEM AND POLITICAL PLAYERS ARMED FORCES EUROPEAN UNION FORCES IN BIH BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA CIMIC SITES CHAPTER II KOSOVO FACTS HISTORY GEOGRAPHY POPULATION ECONOMY INFRASTRUCTURE MEDIA EDUCATION PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS PUBLIC HEALTH AND EPIDEMICS DISEASES FORCES IN THE PROVINCE FORCES IN THE PROVINCE KFOR KOSOVO CIMIC SITES CHAPTER III THE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA FACTS HISTORY GEOGRAPHY POPULATION ECONOMY INFRASTRUCTURE MEDIA EDUCATION PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION KEY LEADERS IN POLITICS CIVIL ORGANIZATIONS NATIONAL HOLIDAYS OF RELIGIOUS ORIGIN MAIN CIMIC SITES PUBLIC HEALTH MACEDONIAN ARMED FORCES

5 CHAPTER IV BASIC RULES FOR SOLDIERS ENTERING THE BALKAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS THE 9 MOST IMPORTANT RULES OF ENGAGEMENT SANITARY RULES SOCIAL CONDUCT Kosovo Albanian etiquette Muslim traditions NORMS OF BEHAVIOR, OR TO DO OR NOT TO DO? Showing respect Greeting and introduction Gestures Taking pictures Religious traditions KEEP IT IN MIND! ENGLISH -- ALBANIAN -- SERBO-CROATIAN -- HUNGARIAN VOCABULARY

6 GEOPOLITICS The expression Balkan is used in both a historical and a geographical context. In both cases, Balkan means a region of special historical, geographical and cultural attributes in Southeast Europe. From a geographical point of view, the region is bordered by the Bay of Triest / Fiume, the rivers Sava and Danube, the South Carpathian Range, the Black Sea, the straits of Bosporus and the Dardanelles, and the Aegean Sea and the Adriatic. The territory of the Balkan peninsula is square kilometers ( sq mi) with highly rifted coasts. There are several mountains, highlands and lowlands in the region. 6

7 The Balkan s geopolitical situation has been effected by the fact that it is between Europe and Asia and that it has a mountainous terrain and natural borders making the establishment of a centralized state rather difficult. The ambivalence of the region can be perceived since it has been a buffer zone between major powers and also a rim at the same time. Nevertheless, the cradle of European civilization rocked in the ancient cities of the Greek archipelago. Alexander the Great had founded the basis of his worldwide power in the Balkan, but then he moved his seat to Asia. The Roman Empire integrated almost the whole peninsula into its system of provinces and the Roman culture and civilization flourished in the Byzantin Empire after the collapse of the West Roman Empire. The Ottoman Empire utilized the peninsula as a bridgehead towards Europe. The Ottoman occupation meant centralized military administration, but in the field of culture, religion, and economy the Balkan enjoyed a certain degree of self-determination. This proccess contributed to the further religious and etnical diversity of the region. The Ottoman occupation lasted almost five hundred years, and this long-standing oppression led to the evolution of independence movements all over the peninsula. The Turkish Empire declined in the late 19 th century and its continuous withdrawal created a power vacuum in the Balkan. The geopolitical importance of the region made the major powers of that era strengthen their influence in the Balkan. In the Southeast part of peninsula, the Russians faced the British as Russia tried to expand towards all-year and nonblockable harbors. The key issue was the possession of the Bosporus and the Dardanellas. While checking the Straits via its navy, Great Britain was able to prevent the Russian expansion toward the southern part of the Balkan. Further major powers were also present. The German Empire regarded the region as a potential German economic area of interest and followed the policy of Drang nach Osten ( Advancing westward ). The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy applied similiar methods in dealing with the Balkan nations, but it managed to gain partial control over the northern part of the Balkan. The annexation of Bosnia Hercegovina (BiH) by the Monarchy served this special geopolitical interest and it can be considered as force projection in order to keep hostile geopolitical factors off of its border. So many major and minor players being present in the region, such an action could not create stability, because the provisional, territorial and political gains were always questioned by the rivals. Rivalry between major powers intensified the national and independence movements, playing off one against the other. Newly independent countries like Serbia, Romania, Greece, and Bulgaria took part in the repartition of the Balkan. In the case of newly created borders, the major powers, just like in the case of colonialization, did not take ethnicity into consideration, but favored this or that nation according to its relationship with a specific major power. In every case, territorial demands were based on historical borders. This meant that the existing border never corresponded with the ethnic and religious border. 7

8 The peace conference after World War I created the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenians (named Yugoslavia in 1929) by taking - without the desire to show the full list Croatia from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and Vojvodina/Vajdaság from Hungary. After WW1, Romania doubled its territory by taking Transylvania and the Partium / Részek from Hungary. Greece was given the southern parts of Bulgaria thus blocking its access to the Aegean Sea; in fact, Bulgaria, who had fought along the Central Powers, lost 60% of its former territory. The Versailles Peace Conference was not about peace and stability but about profitmaximalization in the Balkans, just like in other places of the world. Neither Bulgaria was satisfied with the new status quo, nor the victorius states were satisfied with their territorial expansions. All of the aforementioned states were ethnicaly heterogenous. Beside the external geopolitical effects, internal politics also increased tension. In the Kingdom of the Serbs, the Croats and the Slovenians (which was actually nothing else but Grand Serbia), the Serbian political elite took no account of the political and cultural rights of other Yugoslavian nations. Between the two World Wars, the country was characterized as a politicaly unstable state running towards a complete disintegration. The expression Balkanization arose from that historical period. The Concept of Balkanization means that a state or states in a given region struggle with internal and external political conflicts due to ethnic and religious discrepancies without endavoring to establish political stability but intending to expand their territories. The Cold War meant peace among Balkan states, especially in Yugoslavia, where the socialist state could suppress any ethnic tensions. The suppression of ethnic tensions did not resolve the main issue, it just prolonged it. Since the late 1960s, new tensions and economic differences had come to light among the developed north and the underdeveloped south member states of Yugoslavia. These differences smashed the basis of the Federal Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia. The disintegration of Yugoslavia created another power vacuum in the Balkan peninsula and activated the geopolitical power game in the region. The motives of the Yugoslavian Wars are rooted in the strategy of various nations and in the different interest of major and regional powers as well. Let us start with the United States of America. As being a main geopolitical player, the USA s role was not clear in the early 1990s. It became more clear later, during the air operations against Bosnian Serbs first, then against Yugoslavia Minor. The present phase is characterized by America s military and economic presence in the Balkans. In fact, the USA created two permanent bases and one loyal state in the heart of the Balkan via economic and military means. Kosovo and Macedonia are committed to the US, and the Croats of Bosnia- Hercegovina also have a close alliance with the US. 8

9 Germany can be regarded as a traditional geopolitical player in the Balkans and it asserted this status by recognizing the independence of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991 in spite of the objections upheld by the European Community. These actions made it clear that there is a German foreign policy and that Germany is respected by two states. Germany distanced itself from the other European powers, who were too cautious and ineffective in their Balkan policy. By recognizing the new states, Germany rejected the resurrection of Yugoslavia in any form. The Balkans has been a sphere of interest for Russia since the 19 th century and the Russians have been active again since 1990 and have been exploiting the concept of Slavian brotherhood between them and the Serbs. Relying on these relations, Russia tried to act as the protector of Serbia while supporting its foreign policy interests in the Balkan issue. Such a unilateral support towards the Serbs resulted in alienating the Croatian and the Bosnian goverments. The strategy of the United Kingdom and France in the Balkan cannot be outlined clearly. They were running much more of a reactive than initiative policy. In their case, we cannot find elaborated geopolitical efforts. Both nations contributed to peacekeeping operations at a large scale. Last but not least, let us take a look at Hungary s geopolitical interests in the Balkan region. Hungary s active role in the Balkans can be traced back to centuries. There are historic, geographic, cultural and economic reasons; there is a Hungarian minority in Serbia, Croatia and in Slovenia as well. Hungary is obliged to help and protect these minorities in the Balkan countries by taking part in creating stability and peace in the region. Hungary contributed to peacekeeping missions with military contigents and humanitarian support. Hungarian peacekeeping military units have been serving there since 1995; the first mission was in Okucani, Croatia, followed by other missions in Bosnia-Hercegovina, Macedonia and Kosovo showing Hungary s commitment to peace and stability in the Balkans. The Hungarian goverment s main aim was to prevent another humanitarian disaster and to avoid a mass tide of refugees, which would have affected Hungary as being a transit or target state. Hungary could not ignore the fate of the Hungarian minorities, whose interests need to be represented at its best. We perform mediation towards the European Union, which could ameliorate Hungary s influence. We have an interest in decreasing security risks in our geopolitical environment via permanent presence with military and economic assistance in adjacent countries and in distant parts of the world as well. 9

10 CHAPTER I BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA 1 FACTS Name: Constitution: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) Articles in the Dayton Agreement signed on December 14, 1995 Declaration of independence: March 03, 1992 Capital: Sarajevo (600,000 residents) 2 Official language: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian Area: sq km ( sq mi) Population: (est 2005) Ethnic groups: Bosniaks 48%, Serbs 37,1%, Croats 14,3%, Others 0,6% 4 note: Bosniak has replaced Muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam Religion: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, Other 14% Currency: Convertible Marka (BAM) 1 The chapter bases mainly on internet sources, see below. 2 CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina 10

11 HISTORY In acient times, Illyrian tribes lived in this territory and it became part of the expanding Roman Empire. In 395, the Roman Empire disintegrated into two sovereign empires - the West and the East Roman Empire. The border ran between the two states along the same way it runs between Serbia and Bosnia. This border correlates with the demarcation line between Western and Eastern Christianity. In the 7th century, Slavian tribes moved to the region. Their leaders succeeded in founding a few weak states which were under the control of neighboring powers throughout the Middle Ages. Before the 14th century, this territory belonged to the Kingdom of Serbia and later on to the Kingdom of Hungary. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire conquered the region and controlled it up to the year 1878, thus Islam could hold ground in this area. The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy annexed Bosnia in accordance with the articles of the Conference of Berlin. After World War I, the Peace Conference of Versailles created a new state - the Kingdom of the Serbs, the Croats and the Slovenians. It was given the name Yugoslavia in During World War II, the concealed hostilities of the 1920s and 1930s among Yugoslavians of various descents came to the surface so strong that mass ethnic cleansings occured in the region. After WW2 and during the era marked by general (later president) Josif Broz Tito, Yugoslavia was a federal republic with five major nationalities: the Serbs, the Croats, the Slovenians, the Bosniaks and the Macedonians. After Tito s death in 1980, this extraondinary state began to disintegrate. The Serbs had the majority in the high branches of government and tried to strengthen their role and push their power to the maximum. Slovenia and Croatia, the two richest member states, opposed this political action; they wanted to maintain their position within the federation. Political disputes hit national sentiments. On June 26, 1991, Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence. In order to topple their attempt, the People s Army of Yugoslavia attacked them. In Slovenia, the war lasted about two weeks, but in Croatia there were heavy fightings. The Yugoslavian army used bases in Bosnia and Herzegovina (at that moment still part of Yugoslavia) in order to attack Croatia. Although the situation was relatively calm in Bosnia and Herzegovina, ethnic violence occured. The first ever-elected president of Bosnia, Alija Izetbegovic (1990) declared Bosnia and Herzegovina s independence. Tens of thousands of Muslims, Croats and Serbs took the streets in Sarajevo to demonstrate for peace and against war. The demonstration was stopped by Serb nationalists supported by the Yugoslavian army and snipers positioned in the city and in the surrounding mountains. This marked the beginning of the siege of Sarajevo; this was the first day of the civil war in the country. Some months later, the Serbs declared the foundation of their own Serbian Republic within Bosnia, and the country fell into two major parts separated by a bloody and constantly changing frontline. The civil war also led to ethnic cleansing, people of the wrong ethnic group or religion were expelled or killed. Concentration camps were built throughout the country. More than one million people became refugees. Along the main frontline, the Serbs fought against the Muslims and the Croats. However, in other areas, the Croats fought the Muslims, sometimes enjoying the support given by the Serbs. In the south, the Croats declared their own republic, Herceg-Bosna, and its accession to Croatia. In 1995, the Dayton Agreement was signed by Izetbegovic, by the Croatian president Tudman and by the Serbian president Milosevic. The Dayton Agreement returned Herceg- Bosna to Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Serb Republic remained within Bosnia, too. This agreement unified the Muslims with the Croats in one federation, but the Serbs were to keep 11

12 their own Serbian Republic. The IEBL (Inter-Entity Border Line) was based upon the former frontline. Roadblocks and other posts at the frontline disappeared in the next months, thus free traffic between the entities was restored. In the same year, the Croatian army started an operation to free Serb-held territories in Croatia. This military action forced many people to flee. The Serbs fled to the Serbian Republic. This action put the fragile stability to jeopardy, but peace prevailed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Despite minor incidents, peace has been maintained in the country since SFOR enforces the articles of the Dayton Agreement. The EU took command of the mission from NATO on December 01, GEOGRAPHY Bosnia and Herzegovina s absolute geographic location is 45 to N and to 19 E. It is in the South East region of Europe in the Balkan Peninsula. It is surrounded by Croatia (common border: 932 km / 579 mi) in the Southwest and much of the North and by Serbia and Montenegro (527 km / 327 mi) in the East. The country is only 51,129 sq km (19,741 sq mi) with the shape of an isosceles triangle. This has been symbolized in BiH s national flag. Bosnia s extension from the North to the South is 300 km (186 mi), while its east-to-west extension is 250 km (155 mi). In accordance with the Dayton Agreement, Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into two parts: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FbiH) has 51% of all territories, while the Republic of the Serbs (RS) has 49%. Bosnia is a mountainous country with high plateaux and deep valleys; limestone covers the majority of the surface. Around Mostar and the capital Sarajevo, there are also mountains with peaks protruding 2000 meters (6100 feet). Due to this terrain, the area around Sarajevo is frequently covered by snow in the winter. In the southwest along the Croatian border, the Dinaric Alpes have an average height of 1500 meters (4575 feet). The highest peak is Maglic close to the border of Montenegro with a height of 2,386 meters (7277 feet). There is just one flat-open region, and it is in the North; it is adjacent to the Great Hungarian Plains. The mountinous relief influences hydrology. The majority of the rivers run towards north due to the slopes as mountains are getting bigger and bigger as we move south. From the west to the east, the main rivers are the Una and its tributary, the Sana, the Vrbas, which runs through Banja Luka, the Bosna, and last but not least, the Drina, which marks the border with Serbia and Montenegro. All these rivers run directly or indirectly into the river Sava, a tributary of the Danube. The river Sava serves as a border with Croatia. The only significant exception is the Neretva, running first towards north, then turning back south and finally entering the Adriatic Sea. Bosnia has a very short coastline - about 20 kms (12 mis). Despite the fact that Neum is the only Bosnian town located at the sea, the Croatian city of Ploče and the Montenegrian city of Bar are the most important accesses to the sea. 12

13 The main part of the country has a continental climate: there are hot summers (temperatures above 35 C / 95F are normal) and cold winters with a lot of snow. Herzegovina is an exception; the region around and south of Mostar has been influenced by the Adriatic Sea, with the rest being blocked by the Dinaric Alpes. Earthquakes occur frequently, although most of them are too weak to be felt or to cause any damage. POPULATION The population of Bosnia and Herzegovina is and the population density is 78 persons per sq km (203 per sq mi) in Its biggest settlement is its capital, an important cultural and commercial center, Sarajevo (population: 0.6 million). The largest cities are Zenica, Banja Luka, Mostar, and Tuzla. The majority of the population of the country lives in urban areas; they work mainly in the industrial and mining sectors and in the service industries. Before the war, the country was perceived as a modern, industrialised state with noteworthy educational and health statistical records, contrary to its status of today, struck by hepatitis, typhoid, diarrhoea, and rabies. The overwhelming majority of the population (95 %) speaks the same language and comes from the same Slavonic roots, which goes back to their settlement in the early part of the Middle Ages. However, there is a wide gap in religion. Catholics define themselves as Bosnian Croats (15%) and Eastern Orthodox worshippers regard themselves as Serbs (31%). Muslims form the largest part in the religious division (40%), they converted to Islam more than five hundred years ago. Independence Day is a national holiday in both republics (March 1 and May 1). In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic Day is held on the November 25, while in the Republic of Serbia it is celebrated on January 9. Besides these holidays, there are celebrations concerning various religions. The educational system of the country is equivalent to the general Central European and Eastern European pattern: elementary school (eight years, mandatory), high school (four years), college and university (four years). In Bosnia, 250, 000 students attend 407 elementary schools, and there are 80, 000 students in 171 high schools. Higher education is provided at six universities in the country, in Sarajevo, Mostar, Banja Luka, Tuzla and Bihac. Besides these ones, there are four teacher training colleges and four fine art academies. The unemployment rate of the country is high (nearly 40%), thus the majority of the population is unable to find a job suitable to their qualification. ECONOMY Besides Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina was the poorest member republic in Yugoslavia. Though its agriculture was private, they could not develop an agricultural production significant on the national level due to the small size of the farms. In the age of Tito, the development of military-related industry sectors was emphasized, but ethnic problems caused by the war spoiled both the economy and the infrastructure. The country needed considerable international economic, reconstructional, and humanitarian aid. In recent years, the economic development of the country has been stagnating due to a decrease in international aid. The international financial organisations forecast limited growth for the forthcoming years. The external debt of Bosnia and Herzegovina is significant. After 5 CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina 13

14 the war, the amortisation of the debts was rescheduled to preserve economic stability. The Gross Domestic Product is 6500 USD per capita (est 2004). 6 Privatisation is a slow process in the country. The working capital coming from abroad is very small. The banks are private in 92% and the capital from abroad is 72% of this. The official unemployment rate is about 44% (2004 est), however, gray economy may reduce actual unemployment to near 20%. The current account balance is 2.1 billion USD (2004 est) and it does not seem to get better in the near future due to the imparity of export and import (1.7 billion USD f.o.b : 5.2 billion USD f.o.b. respectively; 2004 est). The Central Bank of the county was founded at the end of The new national currency (convertible mark) was introduced in 1998, and its exchange rate was adjusted to the German Mark, and later on, the Marka was pegged to the Euro. Besides the Mark and the Euro, virtually any currency is accepted in the whole country. However, the usage of credit cards may cause difficulties due to the limited number of cash dispensers. INFRASTRUCTURE Transportation Concerning transportation, the country has a railroad net of 1, 021 kilometers, of which 78% (795km / 494 mi) are electrified. System reconstruction is in progress. Road traffic prevails over other forms of transportation kilometers (7100 miles) of the 21, 846-kilometer 7 (13577-mile) road network is paved (paved:unpaved 52:48%), but only a few of them are of good quality. Two-lane roads form 99% of all roads. The road surface is full of potholes and there is a significant pedestrian traffic on both sides of the roads. In the mountain region, freezing of roads is expressively characteristic and the heavy traffic of trucks (lorries) builds ice ribs and bumps along the tracks. Besides these features, drivers need to be on the lookout due to the danger of car theft. The river Sava (northern border) is open to shipping, but its use is limited because of no agreement with neighboring countries (2004). However, navigators between the town of Gradiska and the river Danube should be careful due to the remains of the destroyed bridges and other wrecks, which are remnances of the Balkan War. There are inland waterway ports on the Sava at Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko, and Orasje. There is a 170-kilometer (106-mile) natural gas pipeline and a 9-kilometer (5.5-mile) oil pipeline (data as of 2003). There are 5 heliports and 27 airports (2004 est). In the case of airports, 8 of them are paved 4 airp. having a runway of 2,438 to 3,047m (2679 to 3348 yards) 1 airp. having a runway of 1,524 to 2,437 m (1675 to 2678 yards) 3 airp. having a runway shorter than 914 m (shorter than 1004 yards) /2004 est./, 19 of them are unpaved 1 airp. having a runway of 1,524 to 2,437 m (1675 to 2678 yards) 7 airp. having a runway of 914 to 1,523 m (1004 to 2677 yards) 11 airp. having a runway shorter than 914 m (shorter than 1004 yards) /2004 est./ There are international airports in Sarajevo and in Mostar EUR

15 Communication The communication network of Bosnia and Herzegovina needs development and enlargement. The level of services is below the average level if compared to other successor states of the former Yugoslavia. We do not have any exact pieces of data about the national network. There is no new data about the radio and television broadcasting network of the country. (In 1998, there were 8 AM, 16 FM and one short-wave radio stations. According to the pieces of data of 1995, there were 33 television broadcasting stations and 277 repeaters.). Two local cell phone companies are available: Mobitel Sprske and Eronet GSM. There are 1.05 million cell phone users (data 2003). Hungarian cell phone companies can provide both services (subscription and card packages). The country s international dial code is 387. The country s internet domain is.ba POLITICAL SYSTEM AND POLITICAL PLAYERS 8 (Latest update: May 17, 2005) Executive branch Chief of state Chairman of the Presidency Borislav PARAVAC (chairman since October 28, 2004; presidency member since 10 April 10, 2003; Serb) Other members of the three-member rotating (every eight months) presidency Ivo Miro JOVIC (since May 9, 2005; Croat); Please note that Dragan COVIC was sacked by High Representative Paddy Ashdown on Mar 29, 2005) Sulejman TIHIC (since October 5, 2002; Bosniak); Mirko SAROVIC (resigned April 2, 2003) Head of government Chairman of the Council of Ministers Adnan TERZIC (since December 20, 2002) Cabinet The Council of Ministers is nominated by the council chairman and approved by the National House of Representatives Elections The three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The member with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he or she was the incumbent chairman at the time of the election. Chairmanship rotates every eight months. The last election wast held on October 5, 2002, and the next one is to be held NA The chairman of the Council of Ministers (read: council of the heads of the executive departments) is appointed by the presidency and confirmed by the National House of Representatives 8 CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina 15

16 Election results (Presidency) Mirko SAROVIC with 35.5% of the Serb vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first eight months. Dragan COVIC received 61.5% of the Croat vote. Sulejman TIHIC received 37% of the Bosniak vote. Federation of BiH President of the Federation of BiH Niko LOZANCIC (since January 27, 2003) Vice President Sahbaz DZIHANOVIC (since NA 2003) Vice President Desnica RADIVOJEVIC (since NA 2003); Republika Srpska President of the Republika Srpska Dragan CAVIC (since 28 November 2002) Legislative branch The Bicameral Parliamentary Assembly (Skupstina) consists of the National House of Representatives (Predstavnicki Dom) with 42 seats. Members are elected by proportional representation with 28 seats allocated from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and 14 seats from the Republika Srpska. The term of mandate gained via popular vote is four years. House of Peoples (Dom Naroda) with 15 seats (5 Bosniak, 5 Croat, 5 Serb). Members are elected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve four-year terms. Please note that Bosnia's election law specifies four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures. Elections: National House of Representatives The last elections were held October 5, 2002; the next one is to be held in NA House of Peoples It was constituted in January 2003 and the next one is to be constituted in Election results: National House of Representatives Seats by party/coalition: SDA 10, SDS 5, SBiH 6, SDP 4, SNSD 3, HDZ 5, PDP 2, others 7; House of Peoples Seats by party/coalition: NA The Bosniak/Croat Federation has a bicameral legislature that consists of the House of Representatives with 98 seats where the members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last elections were held on October 5, 2002, and the next ones are to be held in October Seats by party/coalition: SDA 32, HDZ-BiH 16, SDP 15, SBiH 15, others 20,and the House of Peoples with 60 seats (30 Bosniak, 30 Croat) was convened last in December

17 The Republika Srpska has a National Assembly with 83 seats where the members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last elections were held on October 5, 2002 and the next ones are to be held in the fall of Seats by party/coalition: SDS 26, SNSD 19, PDP 9, SDA 6, SRS 4, SPRS 3, DNZ 3, SBiH 4, SDP 3, others 6 This was the result of the 2002 constitutional reform process. A 28-member Republika Srpska Council of Peoples (COP) was established in the Republika Srpska National Assembly including 8 Croats, 8 Bosniaks, 8 Serbs, and 4 members of the smaller communities. Judicial branch The BiH Constitutional Court consists of nine members. Four members are selected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska's National Assembly, and three non-bosnian members by the president of the European Court of Human Rights. The BiH State Court consists of nine judges and three divisions (Administrative, Appellate and Criminal). It has the jurisdiction over cases related to state-level law and appellate jurisdiction over cases initiated in the entities. A fourth chamber, the War Crimes Chamber may be added at a future date. Each entity has a Supreme Court and also a number of lower courts. There are 10 cantonal courts in the Federation, plus a number of municipal courts. The Republika Srpska has five municipal courts. Political parties and leaders (Latest update May 17, 2005) 9 Alliance of Independent Social Democrats or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Bosnian Party or BOSS [Mirnes AJANOVIC]; Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina or HDZ-BH [Barisa COLAK]; Croat Christian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina or HKDU [Mijo IVANIC- LONIC]; Croat Party of Rights or HSP [Zdravko HRISTIC]; Croat Peasants Party or HSS [Marko TADIC]; Democratic National Union or DNZ [Fikret ABDIC]; Liberal Democratic Party or LDS [Rasim KADIC]; New Croat Initiative or NHI [Kresimir ZUBAK]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBiH [Safet HALILOVIC]; Party of Democratic Action or SDA [Sulejman TIHIC]; Party of Democratic Progress or PDP [Mladen IVANIC]; Serb Democratic Party or SDS [Dragan CAVIC - acting]; Serb Radical Party of the Republika Srpska or SRS-RS [Milanko MIHAJLICA]; Serb Radical Party-Dr. Vojislav Seselj or SRS-VS [Radislav KANJERIC]; Social Democratic Party of BIH or SDP [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Social Democratic Union or SDU [Miro LAZOVIC]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Petar DJOKIC] 9 CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina 17

18 Participation in International Organizations (Latest update May 17, 2005) 10 Since having been an independent state, BiH has joined or has been an observer in important organizations. These organizations are: BIS, CE, CEI, EBRD, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MIGA, MONUC, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMEE, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO (observer) ARMED FORCES 11 At the end of the war, the strength of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (VFBiH) and the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) totalled and respectively. In accordance with Dayton Annex 1B, in 1996, representatives of the two entities and the State of Bosnia and Herzegovina agreed to reduce the number of heavy weapons held by the the two armies to negotiated levels, and announced that the size of the VRS should not exceed and the VFBiH Dayton Annex 1B specified that the ratio of forces between the two entities should be 2:1. Since 1996, over 4700 pieces of heavy equipment have been removed by the two entities. Beginning in 1999, the leaderships of the State and the entities realised that the size of the two armies could not be sustained economically and reform efforts began. The armies then downsized to for the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Republika Srpska. However, this total of in the armed forces remained much higher than Bosnia and Herzegovina could afford. In 2002, further downsizing was conducted and the armed forces were reduced from a total size of to Today, the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of professional soldiers. The Army of Republika Srpska consists of 6180 professional soldiers. This number of professional soldiers and conscripts remains economically unsustainable. People at the age of 18 are compelled to perform military service in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, the age limit can be lowered in case of war to 16. The age limit in the Republika Srpksa is 18 for conscripts, too. In both entities, volunteers can join the force at the age of 17. By law, military obligations cover all healthy men between the ages of 18 and 60, and all women between the ages of 18 and 55. Service obligation is 4 months (July 2004) 12 Theoretically, BiH maintains a reserve force of personnel. Approximately 7% of the population is registered in the reserve force. However, this is only a paper force, because it does not organize or train for mobilization responsibilities. The expenses of the reserve forces are related to performing administrative and record-keeping tasks and to maintaining weapons and ammunition for reservists in case of mobilization. As indicated by pieces of data of July 2003, the BiH spends 2.9% of its GDP on defense. The defense budget forms 5.5% of the total public spending. Weapon Storage Sites (WSS) and Ammunition Storage Sites (ASS) are military sites that contain weapons and weapon-related equipment. They are subdivided into combat and resource sites and include, but are not limited to, barracks, airfields, ammunition storage sites, maintenance facilities, communication sites, military schools, etc. 10 CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina 11 OSCE on Bosnia and Herzegovina Defense Issues 12 CIA The World Factbook Bosznia-Hercegovina 18

19 There were 540 WSS in Bosnia and Herzegovina in The number was reduced to 130 by the end of 2002, althought it was increased to 166 in the year 2003 to establish better storage conditions. However, due to costs and the lack of security personnel, the Office of the High Representative (OHR) directed the reduction of WSS in the entire country to less than 10. This could be achieved via the reduction and destruction of obsolete weapons and ammunition. In the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS), most of the ammunition, mines and explosive ordnance are distributed in 19 ammunition storage sites. There were plans to shut down 11 of them by the end of 2003, but the remaining 8 ones are still too many. The Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (VFBiH) was planning to close 9 sites by April 2004, which meant some 15 WSS would remain active. They have plans to close a further 9 sites by June 2005, thus the VFBiH envisage that 4 ammunition storage sites and 2 weapons storage sites would remain. This would mean that the VRS would be allowed only 3 WSS. However, one must keep it in mind that the 2:1 ratio applies to the amount of forces and equipment and not necessarily to the number of storage sites, although clearly there is a relationship. EUROPEAN UNION FORCES IN BIH 13 The basic decisions on the operation were taken by the European Union s Council on July 12, In accordance with the Council s decision, EU troops took over the military mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina from NATO on December 12, The so-called AL- THEA mission consists of 7,000 troops under EU command, the largest EU-led military operation so far. The EU deployed what it called "a robust force" known as EUFOR. It started at the same force levels as SFOR with 7,000 troops, with a mission to ensure continued compliance with the Dayton Agreement and to contribute to a safe and secure environment which is required to achieve core tasks designated in the EU's Stabilisation and Association Process for the region. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1575 adopted unanimously on November 22, 2004 welcomed the EU s intention. It authorised member states acting via or cooperating with the EU to establish a multi-national stabilization force as a legal successor to SFOR under unified command and control. The Headquarters of EUFOR was established in Sarajevo. The force includes 22 EU member states and 11 non-eu Troop-contributing nations providing the necessary capabilities to carry out EUFOR s tasks. Force elements: Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into three military operation areas. There is a multinational force in each of them. The sectors are commanded by British (NW), Finnish (N) and French (SE) officers report

20 ing to the EUFOR HQ in Sarajevo. The Integrated Police Unit covers the entire area of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, there are Theatre Troops deployed all over the country providing support services to these units. Multinational Task Force North (MNTF N) The headquarters is located in Tuzla, MNTF-N and has approximately 1,800 men. Multinational Task Force Southeast (MNTF SE) The headquarters is located at Mostar, MNTF-SE and has approximately 1,800 men. Multinational Task Force Northwest (MNTF NW) The headquarters is located at Banja Luka, MNTF-NW and has approximately 2,000 men. Integrated Police Unit (IPU) The headquarters is located at Sarajevo, IPU and has approximately 500 men. Theater Troops There are approximately 1,000 men in Theater Troops. BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA CIMIC SITES Alone in medieval Europe, the Kingdom of Bosnia was a place where not one but three Christian churches - Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and a local Bosnian Church - existed side by side. Islam arrived in Bosnia 500 years ago when the armies of the Ottoman sultans swept across the Balkans. Throughout Europe, this was an age of religious ferment and many, even Martin Luther, saw the coming of the Ottomans as a sign of divine judgment. In Bosnia, people from all religious and social backgrounds adopted the faith of the conquerors; many rose to join the Ottoman elite as soldiers, statesmen, Islamic jurists and scholars. Village of Pocitelj Pocitelj is a picturesque little town perched on a hillside above the Neretva River, south of Mostar. Until three summers ago, the people of Pocitelj - Muslims and Christians - had lived together for 500 years. The Old Bridge (Stari Most) The "Old Bridge" enhanced the town's development and prosperity. Despite reinforcement works sometimes incompatible with modern restoration principles, this construction was in a perfect state of conservation before the outbreak of military hostilities in the region. Mimar Hajruddin, a pupil of the famous architect Sinan (considered as the father of classic Ottoman architecture), constructed the bridge in It consisted of a humpbacked arch with an opening of 27 meters, and was 4 meters wide and 30 meters long. It stood 20 meters above the maximum water level in summer. The bridge was flanked by two fortified towers, the Halebija Tower on the right bank and the Tara Tower on the left bank, both dating back to the 17th century. The solidity of the construction was such that it supported the passage of Nazi tanks during the Second World War. Before its destruction in 1993, the bridge was threatened mainly by erosion due to humidity, although this was under control. Through international financial aid (notably from Turkey, Italy, the Netherlands and France) managed by the World Bank, UNESCO established an International Committee of Experts to reconstruct the old bridge and the old town of Mostar. 20

21 CHAPTER II KOSOVO 14 FACTS Province name: Kosovo and Metohija Autonomous Province Declaration of independence: September 22, Capital: Pristina ( residents) 16 Languages: Serbian, Albanian Population: Ethnic groups: Albanians 88%, Serbs 7%, Others (Bosniaks, Romas, Turks, Croats) 5% 18 Currency Euro (EUR) since Jan 1, 2002 HISTORY The Slavs came to this region in the 6th and 7th centuries pushing Albanian tribes to the mountains. In the Middle Ages, the core of the Serbian state was the territory that we call Kosovo today. The Serbs converted to Orthodox Christianity and they built a strong feudal state. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Ottoman Empire conquered them step by step. During the Turkish occupation, which lasted till the 19th century, Albanians were converted to 14 The used documents see below. 15 The international community didn t recognize as an independent state, they have regarded it as a part of Serbia and Montenegro

22 Islam, thus a new religion appeared along the demarkation line of Eastern and Western Christianity. In the 19th century, there were many uprisings against the Turkish Empire. The major powers of the era fought for these territories, too. The Berlin Conference and the Treaty of San Stefano (1878) changed the Balkan at a large scale by creating new states and new spheres of influence. In the First Balkan War (1912), the Turks were defeated and forced to leave the Balkan. In the Second Balkan War (1913), the newly independent states fought each other to dominate the region. The Conference of London (1913), which ended the war, underlined the effects of the Treaty of San Stefano and created a new state, Albania, for the first time in history. Further significant changes occurred after World War I. and II. The peace agreements did not take national and ethnic issues into consideration; conflicts lurking below a surface of calmness came to light several centuries after their birth. Between the two world wars, Belgrade had a strict and oppressive policy on Albanians. All the Albanian schools were closed and Albanians were ousted from public administration. Meanwhile, approximately 70,000 Serbs moved to Kosovo. Until 1989, the region enjoyed a high degree of autonomy within Yugoslavia, when Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic altered the status of the province by removing its autonomy and placing it under the direct control of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. The Kosovars strenuously opposed these measures. During 1998, open conflicts between Serbian military and police forces and the Kosovars caused the death of more than 1,500 Kosovar Albanians and forced 400,000 people to flee. The International Community became gravely concerned about the escalating conflict, its humanitarian consequences, and the risk of its spread to other countries. President Milosevic's disregard of diplomatic efforts aimed to resolve the crisis peacefully and the destabilizing role of militant Kosovar Albanians were also of concern. Milosevic refused to co-operate with the International Community, and on March 23, 1999 the order was issued to commence air strikes (Operation Allied Force) against Serbia. On June 10, after the seventy-seventh day of the air campaign, the strikes were halted because the full withdrawal of Yugoslavian forces from Kosovo had begun. KFOR was created to safeguard peace and to protect international organizations and the people in Kosovo. GEOGRAPHY Kosovo s absolute geographic location is to N and to E. It is located in the South East region of Europe on the Balkan Peninsula. The total length of land borders are km (435 mi). Adjacent countries are Serbia (common border: km / 218 mi), Macedonia (158.7 km / 98 mi), Albania (111.8 km / 69 mi), and Montenegro (78.6 km / 48 mi). Kosovo s extension from the north to the south is 166 km (103 mi), while its east-to-west extension is 145 km (90 mi). The total area of the province sq km (4203 sq mi). Kosovo has a varied terrain. It is edged with the Dinar Mountain s medium and high mountains in the North and the West, determined by Hellenic Mountains ranges in the South, and it is surrounded by mountain ranges of medium high in the Northeast, East and Southeast. The high mountains have bare ridges, lacy cliffs, steep and bleak valleys and mountainsides, in some places the surface is of limestone. Transportation is very difficult; there are only a few passes that can be travelled on foot or on horseback. In these areas, the climate is characterized by cool summers and cold winters, just like in other elevated regions of the world. The medium mountains are less abandoned and transportation is quite good despite the poor road network. Kosovo is rich in natural resources, mostly in ores like nickel, zinc, lead, 22

23 network. Kosovo is rich in natural resources, mostly in ores like nickel, zinc, lead, silver and lignite. The highest peak in Kosovo is Deravica (2656 m / 8100 feet). Metohija is a large basin in the western part of the province. The region includes the towns of Istok, Peć, Dečani, Dakovica, Orahovac, and Prizren. The second largest region is Kosovo Field, a basin around the river Sitnica and it contains the cities of Uroševac, Pristina, Vučitrn, and Kosovska Mitrovica. The average altitude is 300 m (915 feet) above sea level. Two basins are separated by mountains of 700- to 1300-m (2135- to 3965-foot) height. The mountains in this region are rich in ores and are the primary sources of raw material. On the other hand, Metohija in the west and northwest of the province has fertile arable land. The geographic division between Metohija and Kosovo Field has created the discrepancy in their flora and fauna. Metohija has been influenced by the Mediterranean, thus being the region with the highest number of Mediterranean species of flora and fauna in whole Serbia, while Kosovo Field does not differ from the rest of Serbia. There are two plains characterized by strategic roads and railroads. The most important route runs the Belgrade-Pristina-Skopje- Thessaloniki line. In these areas, troops can move fast and operate via a well-constructed transportation network. In the basins, the climate is special continental with long, warm and dry summers and cold winters. The average temperature for January remains below 0 C (32 Fahrenheit), while the average temperature of July is between 22 and 24 C (71 and 75 Fahrenheit). The most significant rivers are Beli Drim, Sitnica, Bitrica Peja, Binacka Morava, Lepenci, Ereniku, Ibar, and Bistrica Prizren. The rivers of the province belong to the catchments area of the Black Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Aegaen Sea. Water levels are high after thawing and during the rainy fall (autumn), and they are low in July and August. There are many reservoirs in the province, of which the three most important ones are the Gazivodai, the Gracani and the Batlavai. POPULATION In the 14th and 15th centuries, the conquest of the region by the Ottoman Empire changed the ratio of people of various descent a lot. The Serbs had wandered northwards and their areas were settled by the Albanians descending from the mountains. At the beginning of the 20th century, more Albanians than Serbs lived in the region. Most of Kosovo was annexed to Albania in World War II. As the province was given back to the Yugoslavian republic of Serbia after the war, the Yugoslavian government started an ethnic cleansing and resettled Serbs to Kosovo. The Titoist government gave Albanians autonomy via the Constitution of The ratio of Serbs fell from 25 to 10%. The main reason for that was the high birth ratio among Albanians 19 and the assimilation of Turks to Albanians; reason two was the emigration of Serbs. The ethnic ratio has changed completely during the centuries. The Milosevic cabinet restricted the autonomy of Albanians. It is hard to deal with this problem, since Kosovo is the birthplace of Serbian culture, and as mentioned before, the State of Serbia was created in this territory. Such a heritage encourages the Serbs to stick to the possession of Kosovo till the very last. The pieces of data provided by the Serbs and Albanians show different findings on the composition of the population in Kosovo. The main pillar of the Albanian independence movement is that Kosovo is almost homogeneous. The population has been changing permanently in latest years. A huge mass of people left their homes. They moved to the neighbouring countries (Albania, Macedonia, Serbia) or they hid and wandered within the province. The 19 The Albanian population tripled between and

24 situation was the most severe during the time of NATO air operations, when several hundred thousand Albanians lived in refugee camps. A throng of people went back as KFOR extended its control over the region. Following the advance of the allied troops, the UCK infiltrated the province and took revenge on residents of Serbian origin. Many Serbs felt it better to flee to Serbia. The population of the province is 2 million; population density is 192 persons / sq km (497 persons / sq mi). Albanians form 88% of the population followed by Serbs at 7%. There are few Bosnians, Romas, Turks and Croats living in the province. 42% of the population lives in urban areas, while 58% resides in rural areas. The poverty ratio is at 12%. 20 The inhabitants of Kosovo differ in many ways from the average residents of Europe. The people of the province are young; a household consists of more generations. There are six people living in an average family. This number is higher in the countryside than in cities. There are fewer members in a Serbian family than in an Albanian one. The rate of fertility is one of the highest, but infant and mother mortality is the highest in Europe. More boys are born than girls. In case of adults, there are more men than women. Age distribution (%): 21 Age: Albanians Serbs Others Ages Ages Ages above Main settlements and the number of residents 22 Pristina 209,100 Prizren 127,000 Pec 83,000 Dakovica 78,100 Kosovska Mitrovica 76,600 Gnjilane 70,800 ECONOMY Kosovo was the most underdeveloped province of the former Yugoslavia, and after the collapse of the Yugoslavian Federation Serbia inherited the province. Kosovo received the largest share of the federal development aids since the beginning of the 1970s; nevertheless, it lagged behind due to the growth of the Albanian population and to using these aids irrationally. Kosovo is rich in resources, but its refinening and processing capabilities are weak since processing used to be carried out in Serbia. Exploitation of ores such as nickel, zinc, lead, silver and lignite are important. Nevertheless, the agricultural sector is the strongest sector of Kosovo s economy. The following plants are cultivated: wheat, corn (maize), barley, tobacco, hemp and fruits. Cattle, sheep, and goat are bred as livestock. Electricity supplies via , 2001 s datas

25 water-driven power plants play an important role in Serbia and Montenegro. 23% of the inhabitants work in the industrial and 15% in the agricultural sector; 24% work abroad. 23 Its currency has been Euro (EUR) since January 1, GDP growth is slowly and carried out by foreign capital injections and privatization. Kosovo seems to have good economic opportunities. Although the pace of growth is getting slower and slower by the years, it is still above the European average. Inflation and the negative trade balance were reduced successfully, but the latter is still too high. The unemployment ratio is high; the number of unemployed people has been increasing continuously in spite of a huge part of the inhabitants working in the European Union. It is hard to find the appropriate solution because the majority of able-bodied men between the age of 20 and 50 make money abroad. It is impossible to estimate what portion of money comes from family members living abroad and from illegal businesses activities (illegal arms trade, man-smuggling, drugtrafficking, prostitution). Some macroeconomic indicators, Indicators Nominal GDP (million ) 1,990 2,163 Annual growth of GDP 7.4% 4-5% GDP per capita ( ) 1,005 1,070 Annual inflation rate 6.5% 4-5% Bank deposits (million ) Trade balance (million ) - 1, Registered unemployment 257, ,781 Consumer Price Index 102.1% 99.6% Average salary per month ( ) n/a 200 It is possible to use Euros and USD in Serbia and Montenegro, but the Dinar is not accepted in Montenegro. The Euro can be changed in banks and at travel agencies. The numbers of ATMs (cash dispensers) are on the rise, but there are not enough of them and the use of credit cards is not widespread. INFRASTRUCTURE The transportation system is influenced by Kosovo s geographic conditions. It is sparsely populated and the road network is not developed in the mountain regions. Roads play a more important role than railroads do. The length of public roads is 4957 km (3081 mi), of which main roads make up 623 km (387 mi) km (1249 mi) of the roads are covered by concrete and 1666 km (1035 mi) of them are macadamized. Road construction standards are usually adequate with the exception of the width of the roadways and shoulders; they are usually very narrow. There is a very important southbound route towards Thessaloniki, Greece. The existing non-electrified, standard gauge, single track railroad network has a combined length of 330 km (205 mi). Taking a coach is better and faster than taking the train. The system suffered only minor damages during the conflict but lost much of its rolling stock in Kosovo Early Warning Report, Report#4, UNDP and USAID common analysis. 25

26 the Serb withdrawal. Poor maintenance of what remained severely limited the railroad's capacity and therefore cannot relieve the road network in the busy Pristina / Skopje corridor. Strong efforts have been taken in order to re-open the railroad line to Serbia by signing an agreement between the Serbian and UNMIK Railroads in May The northern line reopened in December There is an international airport in Pristina and two airports for sporting purposes in Batlava and Gracanica. The Pristina airport located about 20 km (13 mi) southwest of the city has a 2500-meter (2747-yard) runway capable of dealing with B-737s. Military aircraft can use these airports, too. Incoming and outgoing commercial flights are rare; the airport is used mainly by KFOR. Transportation and the canal systems need to be improved. Despite the many reconstruction works, the means of infrastructure are not able to meet the increased demand. Water supply and the electric systems are above the average level of Europe. The conventional phone network is unreliable but the cell phone system is suited for good communication. There are two cell phone providers in the province: Mobtel and Alcatel. The service provided by the Hungarian cell phone companies Pannon and Vodafone is accessible in Kosovo. The international dial code for Kosovo is 381. MEDIA Radio Television Kosova (RTK) is the only public service in Kosovo. The majority of programs are broadcast in Albanian, sometimes in Serbian and Bosnian. It makes money via advertisement. Three other media services are also available: TV 21, Kohavision, and Radio 21. They hold broadcasting licenses for the whole territory of the province. EDUCATION The education system corresponds to the European model: there are elementary schools, high schools (secondary schools) and institutions of higher education. The language of education is Albanian and Serbian. The main problems are the rise of illiteracy, the educational gap between the two sexes, and the discrepancy between education received by rural and urban residents. The attendance number of inhabitants at elementary and secondary school level is considerably higher than at university level. The lag of rural population and that of women is significant. International organizations have been rebuilding more and more schools and the results show that the young and the women are eradicating the gap. The deprivation of rural residents roots in their tradition and in the lack of social mobility. Illiteracy (%): 25 Age Men Women Total Total There are 983 elementary schools, 57 high schools (secondary schools) and the University of Pristina with 14 faculties

27 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Kosovo consists of 5 districts and 30 municipalities. The five seats are the towns of Kosovska Mitrovica (Northern District), Gnijilane (Eastern District), Prizren (Southern District), Pec (Western District) and Pristina (Cenral District). Parliamentary elections were held in November 2001 and municipal elections in October The parties had to receive 2% of the votes cast in order to enter the provincial parliament. 35 parties took part in the election and 4 parties became members of the legislative body. The LDK (Democratic League of Kosovo) took 45,7%, the PDK (Democratic Party of Kosovo) 25,7%, the KP (Koalicija Povratak) 11,3% and the AAK (Alliance for the Future of Kosovo) 7,8%. As of June 2005, the president is Ibrahim Rugova and the prime minister is Bajram Kosumi. 27 Resolution 1244, adopted by UN Security Council, entitles Kosovo a Provisional Institute of Self-Government (PISG). While the consolidation of the province continues, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) checks the three branches of government. The current special representative is Soren-Jessen Petersen, who is the head of UN- MIK. 28 There are 120 seats in the Assembly of the province. The Assembly elects the President of Kosovo. A nomination for the President requires the support of the party having the largest number of seats, or at least 25 members of the Assembly. The President appoints the Prime Minister with the consent of the Assembly. The Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers (read: heads of executive departments) to the Assembly. The President of Kosovo represents the unity of the people of Kosovo and guarantees the democratic functioning of the PISG. The government consists of the prime minister and 11 ministers. The SRSG appoints judges and prosecutors from a list of candidates proposed by the judicial and prosecutorial council and endorsed by the assembly. There is a four-level judicial structure: the Supreme Court of Kosovo, the District Courts, the Municipal Courts, and the Courts of Minor Offenses. The activities of the UNMIK have four pillars: 1 st pillar: Police and Justice led by the UN 2 nd pillar: Civil Administration (UNCA) led by the UN 3 rd pillar: Intitution Building and Elections led by OSCE 4 th pillar: Reconstruction and Economic Development led by the EU INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) OSCE Mission in Kosovo Kosovo Trust Agency Council of Europe European Agency for Reconstruction European Union Monitoring Mission Stability Pact International organisations IMF 27 Detailed list of politicians and parties 28 United Nations Mission in Kosovo 27

28 International Committee of the Red Cross International Organisation for Migration UNHCR UNDP Worldbank Euro Info Center Kosovo Chamber of Commerce Kosovo Business Support Kosovo Pension Savings Trust Statistical Office of Kosovo Center for European Policy Studies (CEPS) - South East Europe Information Center EastWest Institute European Stability Initiative International Crisis Group IWPR - Institute for War and Peace Reporting PUBLIC HEALTH AND EPIDEMICS Kosovo is one of the most underdeveloped and polluted area of Europe. Due to the Civil War and NATO s air strikes, the infrastructure has been damaged and has not been completely repaired yet. This situation has a deep impact upon public health issues. Taking vital factors into consideration, epidemics may occur. Low-quality water resources Such sources of drinking water that meet international standards can be found in a limited quantity in Kosovo. Local people have got used to poor quality drinking water which is being polluted by heavy metals in many cases. Upon entering Kosovo, a soldier s stomach and intestines can get used to local drinking water in 10 to 15 days. However, only medically approved drinking water is recommended. The sewage system Conditions of the sewage system are well below European standards, and in some areas there is no sewage at all. Raw sewage can flow into natural waters, which is a permanent danger to public health. There is no functioning centralized waste collection system and the handling of waste is not on the agenda in Kosovo. In rural areas and in many cases in urban areas, too, the waste is discarded to the street or into canals, or it is just set on fire. Food safety Inhabitants buy and consume mainly from sources dodging the approval of health officials and it can lead to food poisoning. The Institute of Public Health is to supervise the general public health conditions and to take measures to prevent epidemics. The institute is in Pristina and has been equipped with modern medical stores by the US, the Italian and the German governments. There are severe problems with running this institution because there is a lack of reagents and kits which are 28

29 needed to use these medical stores. After 1999, experts of Serbian descent left the institute and they were partly replaced by experts form Albania and Bosnia, although there is still shortage of experts. The solution could arrise from the continuous training of local applicants and, at the same time, the financial dependence of the public health institute on foreign donations should be called off. Sanitary Rules in Theater of Operations in Kosovo Every member of the unit serving at the theater shall have the designated vaccination and med kit. The med kit shall contain discardable needles and antibiotics, painkillers, bandages etc. No food, water or ice shall be consumed without the approval of the Medical Service. Should there be any doubts, contact the Medical Service. Cooked meal shall be wellcooked and served hot after being boiled. Before eating and after using the toilette, hands shall be washed properly. Your body shall be cleaned regularly. Water purification pills are very useful in provincial towns and villages. Use Neomagnol pills! A regular supply of iron, vitamins and minerals is highly advised. Preserve your stamina! Even the slightest scratch shall be decontaminated and covered by Band-Aid or bandage, and you must contact the Medical Service immediately in order to undergo a light medical check. Stay in the shade to avoid heat and exposure to blazing sunlight unless you are to carry out your duty. The use of sunglasses filtering ultra-viola light, sunscreen of factor 15 or higher and lip moisturizers is suggested. You should consume liquids to prevent dehydration, have a rest as scheduled and wear your uniform properly. Pay attention to your feet! The use of foot and body powder is suggested. Powder reduces foot perspiration but does not protect you from fungi. Treat your feet with antifungi material on a regular basis. Socks shall be changed as often as possible. The use of in-boot soles can help prevent severe foot diseases. Avoid any contact with animals, they may infect you. No food should be kept at your place of accommodation since they attract bugs and rodents. Trash shall be discarded at the designated trash depot. Avoid any contact with fauna and flora (animals and plants). Mind spiders, scorpions, ants, bees, flies and wasps! Turn your boot upside down before putting it on since scorpions may use it as a shelter. In case of stings and bites, contact the Medical Service without delay. Avoid any sexual conduct! Not even a properly used condom can protect you from certain venereal diseases (VDs). 29

30 DISEASES 29 disease/pathogen Brucellosis, Tuberculosis Cause Drinking unboiled or unpasteurized milk. Salmonellosis Campylobacteriosis Shigellosis Trichinellosis (Trichinella spiralis) Eating provisions of animal origin without heating, mainly eggs and egg s products, poultry, carcass meat and meat s products. Eating poultries without heat-treatment. Drinking polluted water. Eating infected game or raw meat or meat boiled/roasted at low temperature Disease Symtoms Vaccine Protection time diphtheria tetanus Rising body temperature then fever, heavy breathing Gradually developing muscular rigor and muscular cramps in accessions. Di-Te TD-pur 10 years Typhus (typhus abdominalis) Rising temperature then fever, headache, confused status and pale spots in the trunk Monovalens Typhus Typherix 5 years hepatitis B Generally starts without fever; articulation of pain, lack of appetite and with yellows. Engerix B, HBVax II, Twinrix Life-long; Reinforcing vaccination in 5 years hepatitis A It starts suddenly, with fever holding on some days, enfeeblement, lack of appetite and with yellows. Avaxim, Vaqta, Havrix years poliomyelitis Paralysis, with flaccid paresis. OPV (oral polio vaccine) 8-10 years meningitis epidemica (bacterial encephalitis and meningitis) Mencevax A+C, Meningococcal Polisac charide Vaccine A+C, Mencevax A,C,W-135,Y 3 years 29 Source: Lt.Col.Dr.Dóri Csaba Member of Hungarian Defense Forces Medical Service served at KFOR 2003 January-August 30

31 FORCES IN THE PROVINCE 30 Besides KFOR troops and Serbian regular and police forces, we should not forget the former members of the Kosovo Liberation Army 31 or Ushtria Çlirimtare e Kosovës (KLA / UÇK). There are no authentic pieces of information about the way the UCK came into existence, but two politicians played a key role in forming it. Since Ibrahim Rugova s passive resistance policy was not effective, it generated discontent among Albanians. On the other hand, Slobodan Milosevic s cabinet supported the atrocities carried out by Serbian forces in the province. President Milosevic claimed that he had protected the inhabitants of Serbian descent against injustice. In this political era, the UCK came into existence as a result of the efforts of a policeman in Glogovac in Its first official appearance took place on November 28, 1997, when uniformed UCK fighters took part in a funeral. The articles of the Dayton Agreement strenghtened the position of the UCK among Albanians, because the major powers did not imply provisions concerning Kosovo. The UCK increased its activity month by month; its forces attacked more and more border guard and police precincts. The Serbian authorities unambiguously called the UCK a terrorist organisation and launched a campaign against the organization. In 1998, Serbian police and military forces drove the UCK out of Kosovo to Albania. The UCK started to establish its boot camps in Albania with the support of the Albanian government. The UCK had 6000 to 8000 men in 1999 at the outbreak of the war. At the end of the war, its forces reached to people and its headquarters were deployed in the province. The weapons of UCK came from the army of the former Yugoslavia, Albania and from West European and American firms. The UCK received donations from people and made money from drug trafficking and cigarette smuggling. The other main source of income of the organization came from levying a 3-percent war tax on Albanians in Kosovo. Although NATO and the Serbian government agreed to demobilize UCK forces, it was not enforced on the spot. Certain units of the UCK were transformed into a police force (Kosovo Protection Corps, KPC); other ex-members formed the UCPMB (Ushtria Çlirimtare e Preshevës, Medvegjës dhe Bujanovcit; Liberation Army of Presheva, Medvegja, and Bujanovac; Liberation Army of Preševo, Medvđa and Bujanovac) that broke away from the main line and is led by their former commanders. The UCPMB carried out some actions in the demilitarization zone in Southern Serbia. The UCK set up its organization in Macedonia in order to ameliorate the rights of Albanian nationalities within the state. The main political goal of the UCK was to unite the Albanians in a grand Albanian state including such territories of Kosovo that are dwelled by Albanians, and also that of Macedonia, and last but not least, Albania itself. Neither the Albanian government nor the majority of the political groups in Kosovo support this concept. FORCES IN THE PROVINCE KFOR 32 KFOR is organized into four multinational brigades. Although brigades are responsible for a specific area of operations, all of them are in a single chain of command under the authority of the commander of KFOR Ushtria Clirimtare E Kosovo - UCK 32 KFOR s homepage 31

32 In accordance with UNSCR 1244, the mission of KFOR is to establish and maintain a secure environment in Kosovo, including public safety and order to monitor, verify and when necessary, enforce compliance with the provisions of the Military Technical Agreement to provide assistance to the UN Mission in Kosovo, including core civil functions until they are transferred to the UNMIK. There are significant CIMIC activities in every sector. CIMIC supports the restoration of private and public infrastructure as well as the resettlement of refugees and displaced persons. CIMIC forces maintain economic development and economic cooperation with international partners as well as provide humanitarian assistance. KFOR Headquarters The Headquarters of the Kosovo Force (HQ KFOR) is located in Pristina, the capital of Kosovo. It supports a NATO-led mission of 4 Multi-National Brigades, 34 nations and more than peacekeepers in their effort to provide for a safe and secure environment for all citizens living in Kosovo. LTG Yves de Kermabon has been in charge as Commander of the Kosovo Force (COMKFOR) since September 1, The KFOR HQ reports to the Commander of Joint Force Command Naples (COM JFCN), Italy. The COM JFCN is Admiral Michael G. Mullen. Multinational Specialized Unit - MSU The Multinational Specialized Unit (MSU) is a police force classified as a military unit having all-out law enforcement capabilities. The MSU has substantial experience in combating organized crime and terrorism. The MSU has human resources and other means of investigation in order to analyze the layout of subversive and criminal organizations and provides preventive and repressive resources to be used as KFOR assets. MSU Structure 1 Regiment of the Italian Carabinieri 1 Contingent of the French Gendarmerie 1 Platoon of the Estonian Army Multinational Brigade Center - MNB(C) The Multinational Brigade Center is deployed in the center of Kosovo. In the northeastern area, there is an administrative border with Serbia and the Brigade has the responsibility to check two crosspoints. The MNB(C) has its headquarters in Lipljan and covers the areas encompassing Pristina, Podujevo, Kosovo Polje, Glocovac and Stimlje. The MNB(C) consists of a Finno-Irish Battle Group and the 3 rd Czecho-Slovakian Battle Group. Multinational Brigade Northeast - MNB(NE) The Multinational Brigade North East is deployed in the northern region of Kosovo. Since September 2004, the MNB (NE) s commander has been Brigadier General Jacques 32

33 Lechevallier (French Army). Two aspects highlight the importance of the AOR (Area of Responsibility) of the MNB (NE). On one hand, northern Kosovo is the economic heart of Kosovo as TREPCA'S Combinat illustrates; on the other hand, the MNB (NE)'s AOR is also in a multi-ethnic area. KFOR is represented by the 2nd Armored Brigade deployed in Novo Selo and a French battalion (FREBAT) deployed in Mitrovica. Multinational Brigade East MNB(E) The Multinational Brigade East carries out the following tasks: Conducts peace support operations in its AOR. Maintains a safe and secure environment. Provides for support within its capabilities to the UN Mission in Kosovo (UN- MIK). Monitors, verifies, and when necessary, enforces the Statement of Principles on the units of the KPC (Kosovo Protection Corps) and the FRY (Former Republic of Yugoslavia) as the provisions of the MTA (Military Technical Agreement) prescribe them in order to establish a stable environment. Passing the responsibility to appropriate civil organizations and eventually to local civilian leadership can enable KFOR forces to withdraw from the region. Multinational Brigade Southwest MNB(SW) Brigadier General Richard Rossmanith took command of the Multinational Brigade Southwest on November 16, The MNB (SW)'s operational forces are deployed throughout the Southwest of Kosovo within the municipalities of ISTOK, PEC, DECANI, KLINA, DJAKOVICA, ORAHOVAC, MALISEVO, SUVA REKA, PRIZREN and DRA- GAS. The Brigade Headquarters is located in PRIZREN. Eleven nations work together to carry out their common task. The combat elements of the Brigade are the so-called five Task Forces (TF) having a strength of a battalion and being supported by significant aviation, signal, logistic, engineer, NBC, medical and CIMIC units. KOSOVO CIMIC SITES Generally speaking, architectural monuments forming the cultural heritage in Kosovo are in a precarious and exposed situation. This applies to three major categories: Islamic sites like mosques, Byzantine/Orthodox buildings such as churches and monasteries, and vernacular architecture such as traditional residential buildings (kullas or tower houses) and lodgings (konaks), but bridges, fortresses and town centers are also included. The spiritual centers of a religious or ethnic community have a highly symbolic value, and often have acquired an additional dimension through forms or elements of intangible heritage related to them. Therefore, targeting such sites means a particularly cruel form of aggression. The desecration of cemeteries, churches and mosques, and the subsequent destruction of remnance of cultural heritage are meant to wipe out traces of a past shared by the different communities Cultural Heritage in South-East Europe: Kosovo. 33

34 Great Hammam, Priština The Hammam is located north west of the Mosque Mehmet II al-fatih and is an essential part of the ensemble built around the mosque. It was probably built in the 16th century. The place between the mosque and the Hammam is a popular meeting place for elderly men in spring and summer. Sinan Pasha Mosque, Prizren The native Albanian vizier from Prizren founded this great mosque either in 1009H./1600A.D. or 1016H./1608 A.D. The mosque stands on a hill overlooking the main street in this historic city. Having its huge dome and elegant minaret features Prizren. Hammam Mehmet Pasha (The Great Hammam), Prizren The bath was founded by Pasha Gazi Mehmet, the Sanjak Bey of Iskenderiye / Shkoder probably in A.D. together with a distinguished architectural ensemble, which includes a large domed mosque that later became known as the Bayrakli mosque, a high school (medrese), a primary school (maktab), a library and a mausoleum (türbe) for the founder. Pec Patriarchate The Monastery of the Patriarchate of Pec is located at the very entrance of the Rugova gorge near Pec. The complex of the Pec churches is the spiritual seat and mausoleum of Serbian archbishops and patriarchs. The temple of the Holy Apostles was built by Archbishop Arsenije I in the third decade of the 13th century. Today, the monastery is still one of the most important Serbian Orthodox centers in the region with the sorority of 24 nuns. After the fire set by Albanian extremists in 1981, new residential quarters were erected. After the war (in 1998 and 1999), the monastery became an important center for the remaining Serbs in the area. At this moment, only these nuns have remained in Pec. They live a life of an everyday struggle to preserve this holy site and to provide necessary humanitarian assistance to the neighboring Serbian enclaves of Gorazdevac and Osojane. The monastery also owns the metochion of Budisavci near Klina, where two nuns remain under constant KFOR protection. Decani Monastery The Decani Monastery located at the foot of the slopes of the Prokletije Mountains, in the western part of the province of Kosovo was built in the mid 14th century for the Serbian King Stefan Decanski. It is his mausoleum, too. It represents the last important phase of Byzantine-Romanesque architecture in the region and is the largest of all medieval Balkan churches. It contains exceptional, well-preserved Byzantine paintings which cover practically the entire interior of the church with more than 1000 depictions of various saints. It also has numerous Romanesque sculptures. The original marble floor is preserved, just like the interior pieces of furniture and the main 14 th -century iconostasis. The Decani treasury is the richest in Serbia, with notably about 60 exceptional icons from the 14th to 17th centuries. The Monastery represents an exceptional synthesis of Byzantine and Western traditions. 34

35 Kosovo Polje battle monument The Battle of Kosovo Polje was fought on St. Vitus' Day of 1389 (June 15 in the Julian calendar) between Serbs and the Ottoman Empire. Lazar Hrebeljanović, the ruling Knez (Prince) of Serbia raised an army amounting to about the equal of the total Ottoman force. The knez assembled not just an all-out Serb army but also a real Balkan coalition. He received help from neighboring countries, mainly from Bosnia, Hungary, Albania, and even had a contingent of mercenaries made up mostly of Saxons (Germans). Sultan Murad I also raised a coalition of soldiers and volunteers from neighboring countries in Anatolia and Rumelia, including the forces of Serbian prince Marko Kraljević. The two armies met at the so-called "Field of Blackbirds" or Kosovo Polje. In the battle both leaders were killed; Murad was killed by Milos Obilic, one of the Serb commanders. The Serbs were defeated and after siege of Smederevo and the Serbian state became part of Ottoman Empire in At the 600th anniversary of the battle in 1989, the Serbian politician Slobodan Milosevic delivered his famous speech to about 1 million people present in the former battlefield. This is perceived as the beginning of the disintegration process of Yugoslavia. KOSOVO-RELATED DOCUMENTS UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (UNSCR 1244) Military Technical Agreement Standards for Kosovo Standards Implementation Plan 35

36 CHAPTER III THE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 34 FACTS Name: The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (F.Y.R.O.M) Conventional short form: Macedonia Constitutional name: Republika Makedonija - Makedonija Independence: September 8, 1991 Constitution: November 17, 1991 constitution adopted November 20, 1991 constitution in effect November 2001 amendment enabled to expand minority rights Capital: Languages: Skopje Macedonian other languages spoken: Albanian, Turkish, Serbo- Croatian Population: 35 2,071,210 (2004) Ethnic groups: 36 Macedonian 64.2%, Albanian 25.2%, Currency: 34 The used documents see below Turkish 3.8%, Roma 2.7%, Serb 1.8%, other 2.3% (2002) Macedonian denar (MKD) (monetary unit: 1 denar=100 deni) 36