PROCEEDINGS. International Conference GLOBAL SUSTAINABLE TOURISM November 2010 MBOMBELA NELSPRUIT SOUTH AFRICA

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1 International Conference November 2010 MBOMBELA NELSPRUIT SOUTH AFRICA 2010 GLOBAL SUSTAINABLE TOURISM PROCEEDINGS Effective sustainable tourism management Social and economic impacts Cultural heritage Environmental sustainability Mbombela Local Municipality, PO Box 45, Nelspruit, 1200, Tel: , Fax: ,

2 Global sustainable tourism to explore and debate issues relating to sustainable practices in tourism Four parallel sessions: 1. Effective sustainable tourism management 2. Social and economic impacts 3. Cultural heritage 4. Environmental sustainability ISBN: Editors: Mathilda van Niekerk, Ph.D. Willie Coetzee, Ph.D. Sue Geldenhuys, Ph.D. ii

3 PUBLISHED BY TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY ISBN: Global sustainable tourism The materials published in this book may be reproduced for instructional and noncommercial use. Any use for commercial purposes must have the prior approval of Tshwane University of Technology. All full papers submitted to the International Conference of Global Sustainable Tourism are subject to a peer reviewing process, using subject specialists selected because of their expert knowledge in the areas. Printed in South Africa, Technical Editing: Mr. R. F. Marcus Me. M. van Onselen Copyright 2010 by Tshwane University of Technology, All Rights Reserved iii

4 BACKPACKERS AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM: EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL Laurie MURPHY, Ph.D. Tourism, Sports and Events Discipline School of Business James Cook University, Australia ABSTRACT Eric BRYMER, Ph.D. School of Human Movement Studies Queensland University of Technology, Australia There is conflicting evidence in the literature with respect to backpackers as contributors to sustainable travel. This paper explores this market with respect to sustainable travel attitudes, behaviours and preferences. More specifically it examined the motivations of backpacker visitors to Australia, their preferences for environmentally friendly and volunteer tourism experiences, and explored attitudes towards the influence of environmental impacts on the future of travel. The results indicate that not all backpackers necessarily have a strong focus on the sustainability of their travel, but that those interested in community and environmental volunteering have the greatest potential to make meaningful contributions. 1. REVIEW OF LITERATURE In recent years backpackers have been associated with ecosensitivity and a desire for eco-friendly products (Mohsin & Ryan, 2003; Sicroff, Alos, & Shrestha, 2003; Wearing & Darcy, 1999; Westerhausen & Macbeth, 2003). For example, Sicroff et al. (2003) considered the backpacker market as fundamental to sustainable development in remote mountain areas in Nepal and China. Zhu (2008) concluded that backpackers are innate ecotourists. Firth and Hing (1999) investigated backpacker accommodation preferences and found that, when asked, many backpackers claimed that they would prefer to stay in eco-friendly accommodation. An important finding in this study was that one quarter of backpacker respondents stated they would be more likely to select an eco-friendly hostel over another, if eco-friendly hostels advertised this feature. 733

5 According to Speed (2008), backpacker tourism has sometimes been characterised as good tourism in comparison with mass market packaged tourism, however some destinations prefer to distance themselves from travellers they consider to be low-budget drifters. Similarily, (Ooi & Laing, 2010) claim that as backpacking rises in popularity, it is beginning to attract some dissatisfaction with its growing resemblance to mass tourism. Speed (2008) examined the tourist behaviour of 374 backpackers from an environmental perspective and concluded that backpackers do not exhibit particularly ethical tourist behaviour as propounded by the ethical tourism models. A small proportion of respondents did come close to model ethical behaviour, whereas another small group appears to exist at the other end of the scale. In between there is a range of other backpacker groups that one extent or another reflect some model ethical behaviours. A significant proportion of respondents to the survey indicated that they would change their behaviour if tourism providers were more responsible. Backpackers have also been portrayed as irresponsible and environmentally insensitive (Scheyvens, 2002). Wearing et al. (2002) recognised that the desire to participate in eco-friendly tourism behaviours did not always translate into action and found that even those backpackers who declared a pre-existing tendency to live an eco-sustainable lifestyle often travelled without regard to environmental issues. Wearing et al. (2002) concluded that the mismatch between awareness, intentions and behaviours when travelling was most likely resulted from of a lack of awareness about accredited products in host countries. Similarly, Cooper (2001) identified environmental problems deriving from backpacker visitation to World Heritage listed Fraser Island in Australia which ranged from littering and lack of proper disposal of wastes, through to destruction of bush habitats and sand dunes. The main cause of the negative environmental impacts was identified as the lack information and training given to backpackers on how to behave in the environment. Scheyvens (2002) reported that backpackers have even been associated with local cultural and environmental harm. Consequently, she advised care when connecting backpacker travel to extreme positive or negative environmental 734

6 impact. Instead Scheyvens recommended that local communities could benefit from backpackers if supported by infrastructure and governments. Ooi & Laing (2010) identify volunteer tourism, with its ideals of making a positive contribution to the social, natural and economic environment in which it is situated, as an increasingly sustainable form of travel. In their survey of 249 backpacker respondents, 57% indicated that they were motivated to participate in volunteer tourism. When compared to those motivated only to backpack, those motivated by backpacking and volunteering placed more importance on strong cultural experiences that allow for opportunities to interact with the local people and community and the ability to broaden knowledge and learn about different cultures, people and lifestyles. It was also found that opportunities for increased personal growth and development, with the opportunity to learn more about oneself through increased awareness and broadening of the mind, as well as re-evaluating not only personal values but the way in which one perceives life and the world, were more influential than other motives. In summary, backpackers have sometimes been portrayed as environmentally sensitive travellers who prefer eco-friendly accommodation and products when the choice arises. There is also evidence that backpacker travellers drop any desire for sustainable practices and ethics when travelling. The identification of backpacker interest in volunteer tourism by Ooi and Laing (2010) highlights the potential for the development of a new direction for backpacker tourism. They claim that the incorporation of volunteer tourism into the backpacking experience may help to shape the backpacking in an increasingly beneficial and sustainable way. The inclusion of volunteer tourism within the backpacker experience may facilitate sustainability through the process of assisting the local communities and people upon whom backpacker tourism strongly relies while providing authentic and meaningful experiences for the individual backpacker (Ooi & Laing, 2010). Additionally, Pearce (2008) suggests that backpackers could be viewed as an indicator group, reflecting global consumer attitudes to sustainability. 735

7 In their attitude and behaviours in such domains as willingness to spend money, use of resources, sensitivity to local customs, sexual behaviour and respect for local regulations, backpackers manifest the values of a global young adult culture. Thus the green attitudes and behaviours of backpacker travellers might provide a window into the future of the environmentally sustainable attitudes of young people. Given, the somewhat contrasting views regarding backpacking and sustainable travel, the aim of this paper is to further explore this market with respect to sustainable tourism attitudes, behaviours and preferences. More specifically the study examines the motivations of backpacker visitors to Australia, their preferences for environmentally friendly and volunteer tourism experiences, and explores their attitudes towards the influence of environmental impacts on the future of travel, particularly with respect to their own travel intentions. It also examines whether backpackers can be differentiated on the basis of the level of interest they exhibit towards volunteer tourism, and if so, the implications regarding sustainable travel behaviours. 2. METHODOLOGY The data presented in this paper was collected as part of a wider nationwide survey of backpackers in Australia funded by the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism. Surveys were distributed by research assistants to backpacker in hostels at eight locations around Australia in December 2008 and January In total, 1555 surveys were collected from approximately 50 hostels (see Table 1). There were 453 recorded refusals, with the most common reasons due to language difficulties and not wanting to complete the survey. Surveys were distributed on various days of the week and times of the day, however the sample cannot be claimed to be random and it is biased towards those who predominantly stay in hostel accommodation. The hostels were chosen to include both YHA and other hostels, a range of more expensive and cheaper price points, and branded as well as independent hostels. 736

8 TABLE 1: Total surveys collected Survey Location Number of surveys Sydney 271 Alice Springs 189 Melbourne 69 Gold Coast 226 Adelaide 254 Perth 247 Tasmania 267 Canberra 32 Total 1555 A range of questions were included in the survey, those relevant to this presentation of the data include demographic and trip-related variables, travel motivations, interest in a range of future travel trends, suggestions for environmentally friendly tourism products, and perceptions of the impacts of environmental concerns on the future of travel. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS. Answers to open-ended questions were analysed using Leximancer, a text mining software that can be used to analyse the content of textual documents and to visually display the extracted information in a browser. The information is displayed by means of a conceptual map that provides an overview of the material, representing the main concepts contained within the text and how they are related. In interpreting the data, Leximancer s ability to code and index concepts, and to navigate through the data to find excerpts of text relating to specific concepts was utlised. Within Leximancer, concepts are developed and linked through a systematic examination of the proximity with which words appear in the transcribed text. Importantly, Leximancer distinguishes between words and concepts, with concepts being the most semantically significant words. Leximancer builds its analysis by using word occurrence and cooccurrence frequency to produce a word co-occurrence matrix from which concepts are identified. Leximancer then builds a list, called a thesaurus, of closely related words, associated by proximity to a particular concept. Measurement of direct links between concepts establishes the strength of relationships between concepts. The more times one concept co-occurs directly with another, the stronger the relationship will be. Second, a more complex picture emerges when Leximancer identifies information about the words 737

9 that are semantically related to a concept and produces a thesaurus for each concept. Leximancer then compares one concept s thesaurus with those of other concepts (Rooney, et al., 2010). 3. FINDINGS The average age of respondents (n=1555) was 27 (median = 25) of which 54% were female and 46% were male. A majority of backpackers in this survey came from Europe with most heralding from the U.K. and Germany (see table 2). Germans tended to be the youngest (25 on average), particularly when compared to respondents from Australia/NZ (32 years old on average). Also a greater proportion of German (64.5%) and Asian (67.6%) respondents were female. TABLE 2: Nationality Nationality United Kingdom 22.5% Ireland 6.6% Germany 15.2% Other Europe* 18.3% Scandinavia 5.7% Australia/NZ 7.3% North America 6.2% Asia** 9.4% Other*** 8.9% *eg. France, Netherlands, Switzerland and Belgium ** eg. Korea, Japan, Taiwan *** eg. Israel, India A total of 55% of respondents were working full time before leaving on this trip. When asked about their level of education, 44% stated that they had graduated from college or University, 22% reported completing some college or University and 20% had graduated from high school. For those surveyed, a working holiday was the principal trip type (44%), followed by extended holiday from work/study (24%). Of those respondents who indicated that they were on a working holiday visa, 25.1% also indicated they were on a gap year trip either before or after college (Figure 1). 738

10 working holiday visa study abroad gap year after college/university gap year before college/university extended holiday from work/studies short holiday from work/studies short package trip 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% FIGURE 1: Overview of the major trip types Note: total >100% as some respondents ticked working holiday visa and another trip type. experience something different gaining a new perspective on life getting away from daily routine/pressure meeting new people developing my knowledge of visited place being independent enjoying daring/adventurous thrills developing my abilities & accomplishments being close to nature connecting to past good times strengthening current close relationships experiencing fashionable well known places being safe and away from crowds having romantic relationships FIGURE 2: Travel motivations (1=not at all important, 7= extremely important) Respondents were asked to rate their motivations for travel based on a list of 14 major reasons as identified in the literature. The score ranged from not at all important (a score of 1) to extremely important (a score of 7). A score of 4 and above indicates an important motivation (see Figure 2). Overall, the most important travel motivations for respondents were to experience something different (6.33), gain a new perspective on life 5.77), get away from daily routines and pressures (5.76), and to meet new people (5.70). Being close to nature was mid-range in terms of importance (4.89). 739

11 3.1 Environmental attitudes and concerns Backpackers were asked to identify some specific environmentally friendly tourism products that they would enjoy experiencing while in Australia. A total of 636 suggestions were made and the most common themes related to more eco or environmentally friendly hostels, transportation and tours (see Figure 3). Better recycling in hostels was also a common theme. Alternative forms of accommodation (eg. camping) and tours (eg walking, cycling) were also mentioned. Tours providing experiences and better links with aboriginal communities were also identified. One respondent suggested that more options could be offered to pay extra for things like carbon offset or paying a fee that goes to aboriginal communities. FIGURE 3: Suggestions for Environmentally Friendly Tourism Products Backpackers were asked about how concerns and attitudes about the environment might influence future travel (see Figure 4). Respondents indicated that concern about sustainability and environmental impacts would very likely result in: travel, especially international travel, becoming 740

12 more expensive; many more carbon offset programs; and different kinds of travel becoming more important (e.g. train and coach will become more important than car and air). Respondents also thought that backpacking will thrive as backpackers will become very responsible travellers. Interestingly there was an equal split between those that perceived that travelling with a backpack would not change over the next 5 years and those that considered that there would be considerable change in 5 years. Mean More expensive travel, especially internationally Many more carbon offset programs Different kinds of travel Backpacking will thrive as backpacker travellers will become very responsible travellers Not much change within 5 years Considerable change within 5 years Mean People will limit travel closer to home People will have only 1-2 big international trips in their lifetime Governments will control the right to travel more Backpacking as we know it will die FIGURE 4: Perceived impacts of Increasing Environmental concerns (1=strongly agree to 5=strongly disagree) When asked about future travel plans, 64% reported that they were very likely to travel outside their home country within the next 2 years, and 76% were likely to travel outside their home country within 5 years. The top must see destinations were South America (9.1%), New Zealand (8.9%), Africa (8.7%), USA (8.2%) and returning to Australia (7.6%). The main draw cards for wanting to travel to these countries in the future were the nature-based and cultural attractions and experiences. In terms of barriers to future travel, respondents own financial capacity (3.97), the increasing cost of travel (3.69) and family/career commitments (3.59) were the only items rating above neutral on the scale (Figure 5). The environmental impacts of long haul travel were not considered to be a substantial barrier to future travel. 741

13 Seven emerging travel trends were also rated in terms of level of interest (1=very interested to 5=not at all interested); community volunteering, environmental volunteering, interests in spirituality, interest in improving health, travel to learn about justice and political issues, travel to experience intense physical adrenalin experiences, and travel to develop one s personality and be different for a while (Table 3). The typical desired activities associated with these trends, and the preferred country in which to participate in them, were also collected from those respondents who indicated that they were somewhat or very interested. financial capacity/situation increasing cost of travel family/career commitments health and hygiene issues environmental impacts of long haul travel war and political instability natural disasters terrorism FIGURE 5: Barriers to Future Travel (1= not at all, 5= very much) TABLE 3: Level of interest in trends Most interest: 1. travel to develop one s personality and be different for a while (2.57) 2. travel to experience intense physical adrenalin experiences (2.61) 3. volunteering skills and services to an indigenous or local community (2.65) Moderate interest: 4. volunteering your skills and services to an environmental cause or study (2.82) 5. travel to improve your current physical health and wellness (2.84) Minor interest: 6. travel to learn about justice and political issues (3.53) 7. taking an interest in spirituality and possibly other religions (3.63) Of relevance to this exploration of backpackers and sustainable tourism, the desire for volunteer travel was of some importance, with 40.8% of respondents indicating that they were somewhat or very interested in volunteering. Overall, volunteering in indigenous and local communities was the third most desired future travel trend. 742

14 The top five countries listed as appealing places in which to volunteer in indigenous and local communities were Africa (44%), Australia (20%), South America (10%), Thailand (5%), India (4%) and Cambodia (4%). Figure 6 provides a visual summary of the key themes identified in the desired activities open-ended responses. On closer examination of the key concepts that comprise these themes and their linkages, further insight into the desired experiences is provided. The most common theme was teaching and the related concepts referred to teaching English in Africa. The teaching concept was also linked to building schools and working with children and indigenous children. These concepts were also linked to volunteering in third world countries. Living in and experiencing life in aboriginal communities was another key theme. FIGURE 6: Key themes for indigenous and community volunteer travel experiences Volunteering skills and services to an environmental cause or study was considered to be of moderate importance, fourth overall. The top five countries listed as appealing places in which to volunteer for environmental causes and studies were Australia (26%), Africa (21%), South America (12%), Mexico (6%) and USA (4%). The main themes in the desired experiences in this case were 743

15 working in animal conservation, particularly with endangered species (Figure 7). This included working to stop the hunting of endangered animals in Asia, working with endangered gorillas in Uganda and habitat restoration and species monitoring. Another theme and related concepts focused around general environmental clean up campaigns, including the marine environment and helping to clean up after natural disasters. FIGURE 7: Key themes for environmental volunteer travel experiences 3.2 Differences between those interested in Volunteering and those not Interested Respondents were categorised into two groups based on the level of interest they expressed in either volunteering in indigenous/local communities or to an environmental cause or study. Those who had combined ratings on these items of 4 or less (ie. somewhat interested or very interested in volunteering) were placed into one group (n=539) and those with ratings 5 or more were allocated to the not interested in volunteering group (n=781). Statistical tests were then carried out to investigate differences between the two groups on key variables. There was no relationship between age and interest in volunteering, however, females (47.6%) were significantly more likely to express an interest in volunteering than males (32.9% [(χ 2 =28.936, p=.000)]. Volunteers were more educated, with 51.4% having graduated from college compared to 41.3% of non-volunteers (χ 2 =19.356, p=.001). They were also more likely to be from other Europe and the UK and less likely to be from Ireland (see Table 4). There were no significant differences between the two groups with respect to trip type. 744

16 TABLE 4: Nationality Differences: Volunteers and Non-Volunteers Nationality (χ 2 =19.040, p=.015) Volunteer Travellers Non-volunteer travellers United Kingdom 28.0% 22.0% Ireland 4.8% 8.1% Germany 12.8% 16.5% Other Europe* 21.7% 16.8% Scandinavia 5.0% 6.4% Australia/NZ 7.4% 7.3% North America 6.5% 7.0% Asia** 8.2% 9.9% Other*** 5.6% 6.0% The respondents who expressed an interest in volunteering placed significantly (at the p<.05 level) more importance the following travel motivations; experiencing something different (6.46 vs 6.26), gaining a new perspective on life (6.02 vs 5.58), developing my skills and abilities (5.24 vs 4.78), meeting new people (5.87 vs 5.59), being independent (5.82 vs 5.49), developing my knowledge of the places visited (5.80 vs 5.47), and being close to nature (5.44 vs 4.51). In terms of future travel intentions, there was no difference between the two groups in terms of their likelihood of travelling in the next 2 or 5 years. Volunteer travellers, however, were significantly more concerned about the environmental impacts of long haul travel [2.97 vs 2.38 (t=8.864, p=.000)]. There were no significant differences with respect to the other concerns. In terms of the impact of sustainability issues and environmental impacts on the future of travel (see Table 5), volunteer travellers were more likely to agree that there will be considerable change to travel with 5 years (2.83 vs 3.03), that there will be more carbon offset programs (2.42 vs 2.58), that there will be different kinds of travel (2.52 vs 2.77) and that backpackers will become very responsible travellers (2.74 vs 2.86). TABLE 5: Differences in Environmental Concerns between volunteer and non-volunteer Respondents Affect environmental concerns on the Future of Travel (1=strongly Nonvolunteer Volunteer agree to 5=strongly disagree) Travellers travellers Not much change within 5 years (t=.-.364)* Considerable change within 5 years (t=-3.172)* More carbon offset programs (t=-2.970)* More expensive international travel (t=.267) Different kinds of travel (t=-4.126)* People will limit travel closer to home (t=-.488)

17 People will have only 1-2 big international trips in a lifetime (t=.794) Governments will control the right to travel more (t=.018) Backpacking as we know it will die (t=.289) Backpacker will become very responsible travellers (t=-2.036)* *p DISCUSSION The results of this exploration of backpackers and sustainable tourism issues reinforces the findings from previous research to the extent that it indicates that we should not assume that all backpackers are interested in or contribute to sustainable travel. For the overall sample, the primary motives related to personal experiences, with the motives relating to knowledge, nature and developing abilities in the mid range in terms of importance. Similarly, they were most interested in future travel experiences which focus on their own personality development through having different and adrenalin experiences. However the third and fourth most popular future trends were volunteering in indigenous or local communities and for environmental causes and studies. The potential for volunteer tourism opportunities to contribute to sustainable tourism, which was highlighted by (Ooi & Laing, 2010), is reinforced by the findings which indicated that those respondents interested in volunteering placed more importance on key travel motives relating to developing new perspectives, knowledge and skills and being close to nature. They were also more concerned about the influence of the environmental impacts of long haul travel and that travel would undergo considerable changes as a result. Importantly they were more likely to agree that backpackers will become responsible travellers. The more specific results relating to environmentally friendly tourism products indicated that, overall, there is a level of interest in such offerings, with 636 suggestions made. The results also indicate that the greatest potential lies in making hostel accommodation more environmentally friendly by improving recycling, for example. Alternative forms of accommodation and transport could also be considered and, importantly, links to aboriginal communities were desired. Evidence presented in the literature review that lack of information may contribute to poor behaviour and that advertising of environmentally friendly initiatives might influence purchase, tends to indicate that increasing the provision and promotion of environmentally friendly tourism products could lead to greater uptake by backpackers. 746

18 The desired experiences relating to volunteering focused on Australia and Africa in particular. Respondents interested in volunteering were keen to work with children in areas such as teaching and building schools. The desire to connect with and contribute to aboriginal communities was also evident. Animal conservation was the most popular theme with respect to environmental volunteering, and again Australia and Africa were appealing destinations. In order to capitalise on the potential of volunteer tourism, it is important that tourism operators work more closely with destination governments and relevant agencies to facilitate the development of appropriate products and experiences. It is important to facilitate access to these experiences to maximise the potential appeal to backpackers, given that while there may be some who are champions of sustainable tourism, there are others who may only be persuaded down that path through the provision of information and appealing experiences. Also, destinations which position themselves as leaders in this type of experience might decrease the likelihood of those who exhibit less sustainable behaviours from visiting. 3. CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE TOURISM The results of this research contribute towards sustainable tourism by improving our understanding of backpackers and their potential as sustainable travellers. It is important for destinations to acknowledge that not all backpackers have the potential to necessarily contribute to sustainable tourism development. Rather, the challenge with this market lies in attracting the segment that are more aware of how their travel behaviour does impact destinations and concerned about what they can do to contribute to enhancing the communities and environments they are visiting. There would appear to be some potential for destinations to develop opportunities for volunteer tourism both community and environment based and to market these opportunities to potential backpacker visitors. The promotion of such opportunities will enhance the destination s ability to attract that portion of the backpacker market who are concerned about the impacts of travel and willing to participate in activities which contribute to sustainability, as opposed to those focusing on more personal and social travel motives. The provision of quality, meaningful and transformative volunteer experiences to backpackers which result in personal growth and development, could then facilitate the development of a strong cohort of youth who can act as ambassadors for more sustainable and responsible travel. These ambassadors could then contribute to the creation of a broader 747

19 understanding of sustainable travel opportunities for backpackers and enhance the appeal of participating in such travel. 748

20 REFERENCES Cooper, M. (2001). Backpackers to Fraser Island: Why is ecotourism a neglected aspecgt of their experience? Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism, 1(4), Firth, T., & Hing, N. (1999). Backpacker hostels and their guests: Attitudes and behaviours relating to sustainable tourism. Tourism Management, 20, Mohsin, A., & Ryan, C. (2003). Backpackers in the Northern Territory of Australia - motives, behaviours and satisfactions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(2), Ooi, N., & Laing, J. (2010). Backpacker Tourism: sustainable and purposeful? Investigating the overlap between backpacker tourism and volunteer tourism motivations. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(2), Rooney, D., Paulsen, N., Callan, V., Brabant, M., Gallois, C., & Jones, E. (2010). A New Role for Place Identity in Managing Organisational Change. Management Communication Quarterly, 22(1), Scheyvens, R. (2002). Backpacker tourism and Third World development Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), Sicroff, S., Alos, E., & Shrestha, R. (2003, August 2002). Independent backpacker tourism: Key to sustainable development in remote mountain destinations. Paper presented at the Landscapes of diversity: Indigenous knowledge, sustainable livlihoods and resource governance in Montane mainland south east Asia, Lijiang PR, china. Wearing, S., Cynn, S., Ponting, J., & McDonald, M. (2002). Converting environmental concern into ecotourism purchases: A qualitative evaluation of international backpackers in Australia. Journal of Ecotourism, 1(2), Wearing, S., & Darcy, S. (1999). Ecotourism options in coastal protected area management: a case study of North Head Quarantine Station, Australia The Environmentalist 18(4), Westerhausen, K., & Macbeth, J. (2003). Backpackers and empowered local communities: natural allies in the struggle for sustainability and local control? Tourism Geographies, 5(1), Zhu, X. (2008). The pioneers of the fragile eco-tourism areas - A comparative study between eco-tourists and backpacker tourists. Human Geography, 3. Retrieved from 749